/LMAR=0/XLINE=3/USET=97␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓ ⊂F1


␈↓ α,␈↓α␈↓ π⊗AN UNREASONABLE BOOK



␈↓ α,␈↓Joseph␈α⊂Weizenbaum,␈α⊂␈↓↓Computer␈α⊂Power␈α⊂and␈α⊂Human␈α⊂Reason␈↓,␈α⊂W.␈α⊂H.␈α⊂Freeman␈α⊂Co.,␈α⊂San␈α⊂Francisco
␈↓ α,␈↓1975

␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓ α|This␈α∂moralistic␈α∂and␈α∂incoherent␈α∂book␈α∂uses␈α∂computer␈α∂science␈α∂and␈α∂technology␈α∂as␈α∂an␈α∂illustration
␈↓ α,␈↓to␈α∀support␈α∀the␈α∀view␈α∀promoted␈α∀by␈α∪Lewis␈α∀Mumford,␈α∀Theodore␈α∀Roszak,␈α∀and␈α∀Jacques␈α∀Ellul,␈α∀that
␈↓ α,␈↓science␈α∪has␈α∪led␈α∪to␈α∪an␈α∪immoral␈α∩view␈α∪of␈α∪man␈α∪and␈α∪the␈α∪world.␈α∪ I␈α∪am␈α∪frightened␈α∪by␈α∪its␈α∪arguments
␈↓ α,␈↓that␈α∂certain␈α∂research␈α∂should␈α∂not␈α∂be␈α∂done␈α∂if␈α∂it␈α∂is␈α∂based␈α∂on␈α∂or␈α∂might␈α∂result␈α∂in␈α∂an␈α∂"obscene"␈α∂picture
␈↓ α,␈↓of␈α∪the␈α∪world␈α∪and␈α∪man.␈α∪ Worse␈α∪yet,␈α∪the␈α∪book's␈α∪notion␈α∪of␈α∪"obscenity"␈α∪is␈α∪vague␈α∪enough␈α∪to␈α∪admit
␈↓ α,␈↓arbitrary interpretations by activist bureaucrats.

␈↓ α,␈↓α␈↓ ∧"IT'S HARD TO FIGURE OUT WHAT HE REALLY BELIEVES ...

␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓ α|Weizenbaum's␈α≥style␈α≥involves␈α≥making␈α≥extreme␈α≥statements␈α≥which␈α≥are␈α≥later␈α≥quali≡ed␈α≥by
␈↓ α,␈↓contradictory␈α∩statements.␈α∩ Therefore,␈α∩almost␈α∩any␈α∩quotation␈α∩is␈α∩out␈α∩of␈α∩context,␈α∩making␈α∩it␈α∩di≠cult
␈↓ α,␈↓to summarize his contentions accurately.

␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓ α|The following passages illustrate the di≠culty:

␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓ α|␈↓↓"In␈α~1935,␈α~Michael␈α~Polanyi"␈↓,␈α→[British␈α~chemist␈α~and␈α~philosopher␈α~of␈α~science,␈α~was␈α~told␈α~by]
␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓↓"Nicolai␈α∪Bukharin,␈α∪one␈α∪of␈α∪the␈α∪leading␈α∪theoreticians␈α∪of␈α∪the␈α∪Russian␈α∪Communist␈α∪party,␈α∪...␈α∪ [that]
␈↓ α,␈↓↓'under␈α↔socialism␈α↔the␈α↔conception␈α↔of␈α↔science␈α↔pursued␈α↔for␈α↔its␈α↔own␈α↔sake␈α↔would␈α↔disappear,␈α↔for␈α↔the
␈↓ α,␈↓↓interests␈α∩of␈α∩scientists␈α∩would␈α∩spontaneously␈α∩turn␈α∩to␈α∩the␈α∩problems␈α∩of␈α∩the␈α∩current␈α∩Five␈α∩Year␈α∩Plan.'
␈↓ α,␈↓↓Polanyi␈α∨sensed␈α∨then␈α∨that␈α∨'the␈α∨scienti≡c␈α∨outlook␈α∨appeared␈α∨to␈α∨have␈α∨produced␈α∨a␈α∨mechanical
␈↓ α,␈↓↓conception␈α∪of␈α∪man␈α∪and␈α∪history␈α∪in␈α∪which␈α∪there␈α∪was␈α∪no␈α∪place␈α∪for␈α∪science␈α∪itself.'␈α∪And␈α∪further␈α∪that
␈↓ α,␈↓↓'this␈α∂conception␈α∂denied␈α∂altogether␈α∂any␈α∂intrinsic␈α∂power␈α∂to␈α∂thought␈α∂and␈α∂thus␈α∂denied␈α∂any␈α∂grounds␈α∂for
␈↓ α,␈↓↓claiming␈α∃freedom␈α∃of␈α∃thought.'"␈↓␈α∃-␈α∃from␈α∃page␈α∃1.␈α∃ Well,␈α∃that's␈α∃clear␈α∃enough;␈α∃Weizenbaum␈α∃favors
␈↓ α,␈↓freedom␈α∀of␈α∀thought␈α∀and␈α∀science␈α∀and␈α∀is␈α∀worried␈α∀about␈α∀threats␈α∀to␈α∀them.␈α∀ But␈α∀on␈α∀page␈α∀265,␈α∀we
␈↓ α,␈↓have

␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓↓"Scientists␈α⊃who␈α⊃continue␈α⊃to␈α⊃prattle␈α⊃on␈α⊃about␈α⊃'knowledge␈α⊃for␈α⊃its␈α⊃own␈α⊃sake'␈α⊃in␈α⊃order␈α⊃to␈α⊃exploit␈α⊃that
␈↓ α,␈↓↓slogan␈α⊂for␈α⊂their␈α⊂self-serving␈α⊂ends␈α⊂have␈α⊂detached␈α⊂science␈α⊂and␈α⊂knowledge␈α⊂from␈α⊂any␈α⊂contact␈α⊂with␈α⊂the
␈↓ α,␈↓↓real␈α∩world".␈↓␈α∩Here␈α∩Weizenbaum␈α∩seems␈α∩to␈α∩be␈α∩against␈α∩pure␈α∩science,␈α∩i.e.␈α∩ research␈α∩motivated␈α∩solely
␈↓ α,␈↓by curiosity.  We also have

␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓↓"With␈α⊃few␈α⊃exceptions,␈α⊃there␈α⊃have␈α⊃been␈α⊃no␈α⊃results,␈α⊃from␈α⊃over␈α⊃twenty␈α⊃years␈α⊃of␈α⊃arti≡cial␈α⊃intelligence
␈↓ α,␈↓↓research,␈α↔that␈α↔have␈α↔found␈α↔their␈α↔way␈α↔into␈α↔industry␈α↔generally␈α↔or␈α↔into␈α↔the␈α↔computer␈α↔industry␈α↔in
␈↓ α,␈↓↓particular"␈↓.␈α↔ -␈α↔page␈α↔229␈α↔This␈α↔again␈α↔suggests␈α↔that␈α↔industrial␈α↔results␈α↔are␈α↔necessary␈α↔to␈α↔validate
␈↓ α,␈↓science.

␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓↓"Science␈α⊂promised␈α⊂man␈α⊂power.␈α⊂ But␈α⊂as␈α⊂so␈α⊂often␈α⊂happens␈α⊂when␈α⊂people␈α⊂are␈α⊂seduced␈α⊂by␈α⊂promises␈α⊂of
␈↓ α,␈↓↓power␈α⊗...␈α⊗the␈α⊗price␈α⊗actually␈α⊗paid␈α⊗is␈α⊗servitude␈α⊗and␈α⊗impotence"␈↓.␈α⊗ This␈α⊗is␈α⊗from␈α⊗the␈α⊗book␈α⊗jacket.
␈↓ α,␈↓Presumably the publisher regards it as a good summary of the book's main point.

␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓↓"I␈α∀will,␈α∀in␈α∀what␈α∀follows,␈α∀try␈α∀to␈α∀maintain␈α∀the␈α∀position␈α∀that␈α∀there␈α∀is␈α∀nothing␈α∀wrong␈α∀with␈α∀viewing
␈↓ α,␈↓↓man␈α⊂as␈α⊂an␈α⊂information␈α⊂processor␈α⊂(or␈α⊂indeed␈α⊂as␈α⊂anything␈α⊂else)␈α⊂nor␈α⊂with␈α⊂attempting␈α⊂to␈α⊂understand
␈↓ α,␈↓↓him␈α∂from␈α∂that␈α∂perspective,␈α∂providing,␈α∂however,␈α∂that␈α∂we␈α∂never␈α∂act␈α∂as␈α∂though␈α∂any␈α∂single␈α∂perspective
␈↓ α,␈↓↓can comprehend the whole man."␈↓ - page 140.  We can certainly live with that, but
␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓ ⊂F2


␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓↓"Not␈α∃only␈α∃has␈α∃our␈α∃unbounded␈α∃feeding␈α∃on␈α∃science␈α∃caused␈α∃us␈α∃to␈α∃become␈α∃dependent␈α∃on␈α∃it,␈α∃but,␈α∃as
␈↓ α,␈↓↓happens␈α∂with␈α∂many␈α∂other␈α∂drugs␈α∂taken␈α∂in␈α∂increasing␈α∂dosages,␈α∂science␈α∂has␈α∂been␈α∂gradually␈α∂converted
␈↓ α,␈↓↓into a slow acting poison".␈↓ - page 13.  These are quali≡ed by

␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓↓"I␈α⊗argue␈α⊗for␈α⊗the␈α⊗rational␈α⊗use␈α⊗of␈α⊗science␈α⊗and␈α⊗technology,␈α⊗not␈α⊗for␈α⊗its␈α⊗mysti≡cation,␈α⊗let␈α⊗alone␈α⊗its
␈↓ α,␈↓↓abandonment"␈↓. - page 256

␈↓ α,␈↓In␈α∩reference␈α∩to␈α∩the␈α∩proposal␈α∩for␈α∩a␈α∩moratorium␈α∩on␈α∩certain␈α∩experiments␈α∩with␈α∩recombinant␈α∩DNA
␈↓ α,␈↓because␈α⊂they␈α⊂might␈α⊂be␈α⊂dangerous,␈α⊂we␈α⊂have␈α⊂␈↓↓"Theirs␈α⊂is␈α⊂certainly␈α⊂a␈α⊂step␈α⊂in␈α⊂the␈α⊂right␈α⊂direction,␈α⊂and
␈↓ α,␈↓↓their␈α∂initiative␈α∂is␈α∂to␈α∂be␈α∂applauded.␈α∂ Still,␈α∂one␈α∂may␈α∂ask,␈α∂why␈α∂do␈α∂they␈α∂feel␈α∂they␈α∂have␈α∂to␈α∂give␈α∂a␈α∂reason
␈↓ α,␈↓↓for␈α_what␈α_they␈α_recommend␈α_at␈α_all?␈α_ Is␈α_not␈α_the␈α_overriding␈α_obligation␈α_on␈α_men,␈α_including␈α_men␈α_of
␈↓ α,␈↓↓science,␈α∃to␈α∃exempt␈α∃life␈α∃itself␈α∃from␈α∃the␈α∃madness␈α∃of␈α∃treating␈α∃everything␈α∃as␈α∃an␈α∃object,␈α∃a␈α∃su≠cient
␈↓ α,␈↓↓reason,␈α∃and␈α∃one␈α∃that␈α∃does␈α∃not␈α∃even␈α∃have␈α∃to␈α∃be␈α∃spoken?␈α∃ Why␈α∃does␈α∃it␈α∃have␈α∃to␈α∃be␈α∃explained?␈α∃ It
␈↓ α,␈↓↓would␈α⊗appear␈α⊗that␈α⊗even␈α⊗the␈α⊗noblest␈α⊗acts␈α⊗of␈α⊗the␈α⊗most␈α⊗well-meaning␈α⊗people␈α⊗are␈α⊗poisoned␈α⊗by␈α⊗the
␈↓ α,␈↓↓corrosive␈α⊂climate␈α⊂of␈α⊂values␈α⊂of␈α⊂our␈α⊂time."␈↓␈α⊂Is␈α⊂Weizenbaum␈α⊂against␈α⊂all␈α⊂experimental␈α⊂biology␈α⊂or␈α⊂even
␈↓ α,␈↓all␈α∪experiments␈α∪with␈α∪DNA?␈α∪ I␈α∪would␈α∪hesitate␈α∪to␈α∪conclude␈α∪so␈α∪from␈α∪this␈α∪quote;␈α∪he␈α∪may␈α∪say␈α∪the
␈↓ α,␈↓direct opposite somewhere else.

␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓↓"Those␈α∪who␈α∪know␈α∪who␈α∪and␈α∪what␈α∪they␈α∪are␈α∪do␈α∪not␈α∪need␈α∪to␈α∪ask␈α∪what␈α∪they␈α∪should␈α∪do."␈↓␈α∪-␈α∪page␈α∪273.
␈↓ α,␈↓Let␈α⊂me␈α⊂assure␈α⊂the␈α⊂reader␈α⊂that␈α⊂there␈α⊂is␈α⊂nothing␈α⊂in␈α⊂the␈α⊂book␈α⊂that␈α⊂o≥ers␈α⊂any␈α⊂way␈α⊂to␈α⊂interpret␈α⊂this
␈↓ α,␈↓pomposity.␈α∃ The␈α∃menace␈α∃of␈α∃such␈α∃grandiloquent␈α∃precepts␈α∃is␈α∃that␈α∃they␈α∃require␈α∃a␈α∃priesthood␈α∃to
␈↓ α,␈↓apply␈α⊗them␈α⊗to␈α⊗particular␈α⊗cases,␈α⊗and␈α⊗would-be␈α⊗priests␈α⊗quickly␈α⊗crystallize␈α⊗around␈α⊗any␈α⊗potential
␈↓ α,␈↓center␈α∀of␈α∀power.␈α∀ A␈α∀corollary␈α∀of␈α∀this␈α∀is␈α∀that␈α∀people␈α∀can␈α∀be␈α∀attacked␈α∀for␈α∀what␈α∀they␈α∀are␈α∀rather
␈↓ α,␈↓than␈α→for␈α→anything␈α→speci≡c␈α→they␈α→have␈α→done.␈α→ The␈α→April␈α→1976␈α→issue␈α→of␈α→␈↓↓Ms.␈↓␈α→has␈α→a␈α→poignant
␈↓ α,␈↓illustration of this in an article about "trashing".

␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓↓"An␈α∩individual␈α∩is␈α∩dehumanized␈α∩whenever␈α∩he␈α∩is␈α⊃treated␈α∩as␈α∩less␈α∩than␈α∩a␈α∩whole␈α∩person"␈↓.␈α∩-␈α∩page␈α∩266.
␈↓ α,␈↓This is also subject to priestly interpretation as in the encounter group movement.

␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓↓"The␈α∂≡rst␈α∂kind␈α∂␈↓[of␈α∂computer␈α∂application]␈↓↓␈α∂I␈α∂would␈α∂call␈α∂simply␈α∂obscene.␈α∂ These␈α∂are␈α∂ones␈α∂whose␈α∂very
␈↓ α,␈↓↓contemplation␈α⊃ought␈α⊃to␈α⊃give␈α⊃rise␈α⊃to␈α⊃feelings␈α⊃of␈α⊃disgust␈α⊃in␈α⊃every␈α⊃civilized␈α⊃person.␈α⊃ The␈α⊃proposal␈α⊃I
␈↓ α,␈↓↓have␈α∂mentioned,␈α∂that␈α∂an␈α∂animal's␈α∂visual␈α∂system␈α∂and␈α∂brain␈α∂be␈α∂coupled␈α∂to␈α∂computers,␈α∂is␈α∂an␈α∂example.
␈↓ α,␈↓↓It␈α~represents␈α~an␈α~attack␈α~on␈α~life␈α~itself.␈α~ One␈α~must␈α~wonder␈α~what␈α~must␈α~have␈α~happened␈α~to␈α~the
␈↓ α,␈↓↓proposers'␈α⊂perception␈α⊂of␈α⊂life,␈α⊂hence␈α⊂to␈α⊂their␈α⊂perceptions␈α⊂of␈α⊂themselves␈α⊂as␈α⊂part␈α⊂of␈α⊂the␈α⊂continuum␈α⊂of
␈↓ α,␈↓↓life,␈α∀that␈α∀they␈α∀can␈α∀even␈α∀think␈α∀of␈α∀such␈α∀a␈α∀thing,␈α∀let␈α∀alone␈α∀advocated␈α∀it"␈↓.␈α∀ No␈α∀argument␈α∀is␈α∀o≥ered
␈↓ α,␈↓that␈α⊗might␈α⊗be␈α⊗answered,␈α⊗and␈α⊗no␈α⊗attempt␈α⊗is␈α⊗made␈α⊗to␈α⊗de≡ne␈α⊗criteria␈α⊗of␈α⊗acceptability.␈α⊗ I␈α⊗think
␈↓ α,␈↓Weizenbaum␈α∀and␈α∀the␈α∀scientists␈α∀who␈α∀have␈α∀praised␈α∀the␈α∀book␈α∀may␈α∀be␈α∀surprised␈α∀at␈α∀some␈α∀of␈α∀the
␈↓ α,␈↓repressive␈α⊃uses␈α⊃to␈α⊃which␈α⊃the␈α⊃book␈α⊃will␈α⊃be␈α⊃put.␈α⊃ However,␈α⊃they␈α⊃will␈α⊃be␈α⊃able␈α⊃to␈α⊃point␈α⊃to␈α⊃passages
␈↓ α,␈↓in the book with quite contrary sentiments, so the repression won't be their fault.

␈↓ α,␈↓α␈↓ εBUT HERE'S A TRY AT SUMMARIZING:

␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓ α|As␈α∪these␈α∪inconsistent␈α∪passages␈α∪show,␈α∪it␈α∪isn't␈α∪easy␈α∪to␈α∪determine␈α∪Weizenbaum's␈α∪position,␈α∪but
␈↓ α,␈↓the following seem to be the book's main points:


␈↓ α,␈↓α1. Computers cannot be made to reason usefully about human a≥airs.

␈↓ α,␈↓This␈α~is␈α~supported␈α~by␈α~quoting␈α~overoptimistic␈α~predictions␈α~by␈α~computer␈α~scientists␈α~and␈α~giving
␈↓ α,␈↓examples␈α≠of␈α≠non-verbal␈α≠human␈α≠communication.␈α≠ However,␈α≠Weizenbaum␈α≠doesn't␈α≠name␈α≠any
␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓ ⊂F3


␈↓ α,␈↓speci≡c␈α→task␈α→that␈α→computers␈α→cannot␈α→carry␈α→out,␈α→because␈α→he␈α→wishes␈α→␈↓↓"to␈α→avoid␈α→the␈α→unnecessary,
␈↓ α,␈↓↓interminable,␈α∀and␈α∀ultimately␈α∀sterile␈α∀exercise␈α∀of␈α∀making␈α∀a␈α∀catalogue␈α∀of␈α∀what␈α∀computers␈α∀will␈α∀and
␈↓ α,␈↓↓will␈α∪not␈α∪be␈α∪able␈α∪to␈α∪do,␈α∪either␈α∪here␈α∪and␈α∪now␈α∪or␈α∪ever"␈↓.␈α∪ It␈α∪is␈α∪also␈α∪stated␈α∪that␈α∪human␈α∪and␈α∪machine
␈↓ α,␈↓reasoning␈α⊂are␈α⊂incomparable␈α⊂and␈α⊂that␈α⊂the␈α⊂sensory␈α⊂experience␈α⊂of␈α⊂a␈α⊂human␈α⊂is␈α⊂essential␈α⊂for␈α⊂human
␈↓ α,␈↓reasoning.


␈↓ α,␈↓α2. There are tasks that computers should not be programmed to do.

␈↓ α,␈↓Some␈α⊂are␈α⊂tasks␈α⊂Weizenbaum␈α⊂thinks␈α⊂shouldn't␈α⊂be␈α⊂done␈α⊂at␈α⊂all␈α⊂-␈α⊂mostly␈α⊂for␈α⊂new␈α⊂left␈α⊂reasons.␈α⊂ One
␈↓ α,␈↓may␈α∂quarrel␈α∂with␈α∂his␈α∂politics,␈α∂and␈α∂I␈α∂do,␈α∂but␈α∂obviously␈α∂computers␈α∂shouldn't␈α∂do␈α∂what␈α∂shouldn't␈α∂be
␈↓ α,␈↓done.␈α∂ However,␈α∂Weizenbaum␈α∂also␈α∂objects␈α∂to␈α∂computer␈α∂hookups␈α∂to␈α∂animal␈α∂brains␈α∂and␈α∂computer
␈↓ α,␈↓conducted␈α→psychiatric␈α→interviews.␈α→ As␈α→to␈α→the␈α→former,␈α→I␈α→couldn't␈α→tell␈α→whether␈α→he␈α→is␈α→an␈α→anti-
␈↓ α,␈↓vivisectionist,␈α≥but␈α≥he␈α≥seems␈α≥to␈α≥have␈α≥additional␈α≥reasons␈α≥for␈α≥calling␈α≥them␈α≥"obscene".␈α≥ The
␈↓ α,␈↓objection␈α∂to␈α∂computers␈α∂doing␈α∂psychiatric␈α∂interviews␈α∂also␈α∂has␈α∂a␈α∂component␈α∂beyond␈α∂the␈α∂conviction
␈↓ α,␈↓that␈α∂they␈α∂would␈α∂necessarily␈α∂do␈α∂it␈α∂badly.␈α∂ Thus␈α∂he␈α∂says,␈α∂␈↓↓"What␈α∂can␈α∂the␈α∂psychiatrist's␈α∂image␈α∂of␈α∂his
␈↓ α,␈↓↓patient␈α⊗be␈α⊗when␈α⊗he␈α⊗sees␈α⊗himself,␈α⊗as␈α⊗a␈α⊗therapist,␈α⊗not␈α⊗as␈α⊗an␈α⊗engaged␈α⊗human␈α⊗being␈α⊗acting␈α⊗as␈α⊗a
␈↓ α,␈↓↓healer,␈α⊂but␈α⊂as␈α⊂an␈α⊂information␈α⊂processor␈α⊂following␈α⊂rules,␈α⊂etc.?"␈↓␈α⊂This␈α⊂seems␈α⊂like␈α⊂the␈α⊂renaissance␈α⊂era
␈↓ α,␈↓religious␈α∂objections␈α∂to␈α∂dissecting␈α∂the␈α∂human␈α∂body␈α∂that␈α∂came␈α∂up␈α∂when␈α∂science␈α∂revived.␈α∂ Even␈α∂the
␈↓ α,␈↓Popes␈α∪eventually␈α∪convinced␈α∪themselves␈α∪that␈α∪regarding␈α∪the␈α∪body␈α∪as␈α∪a␈α∪machine␈α∪for␈α∪scienti≡c␈α∪or
␈↓ α,␈↓medical␈α∀purposes␈α∀was␈α∀quite␈α∀compatible␈α∀with␈α∀regarding␈α∀it␈α∀as␈α∀the␈α∀temple␈α∀of␈α∀the␈α∀soul.␈α∀ Recently
␈↓ α,␈↓they␈α_have␈α_taken␈α_the␈α_same␈α_view␈α_of␈α_studying␈α_mental␈α_mechanisms␈α_for␈α_scienti≡c␈α_or␈α_psychiatric
␈↓ α,␈↓purposes.


␈↓ α,␈↓α3. Science has led people to a wrong view of the world and of life.

␈↓ α,␈↓The␈α∃view␈α∃is␈α∃characterized␈α∃as␈α∃mechanistic,␈α∃and␈α∃the␈α∃example␈α∃of␈α∃clockwork␈α∃is␈α∃given.␈α∃ (It␈α∃seems
␈↓ α,␈↓strange␈α↔for␈α↔a␈α↔computer␈α↔scientist␈α↔to␈α↔give␈α↔this␈α↔example,␈α↔because␈α↔the␈α↔advance␈α↔of␈α↔the␈α↔computer
␈↓ α,␈↓model␈α∂over␈α∂older␈α∂mechanistic␈α∂models␈α∂is␈α∂that␈α∂computers␈α∂can␈α∂and␈α∂clockwork␈α∂can't␈α∂make␈α∂decisions.)
␈↓ α,␈↓Apparently␈α∩analysis␈α∩of␈α∩a␈α∩living␈α∩system␈α∩as␈α∩composed␈α∩of␈α∩interacting␈α∩parts␈α∩rather␈α∩than␈α∩treating␈α∩it
␈↓ α,␈↓as an unanalyzed whole is bad.


␈↓ α,␈↓α4. Science is not the sole or even main source of reliable general knowledge.

␈↓ α,␈↓However,␈α⊂he␈α⊂doesn't␈α⊂propose␈α⊂any␈α⊂other␈α⊂sources␈α⊂of␈α⊂knowledge␈α⊂or␈α⊂say␈α⊂what␈α⊂the␈α⊂limits␈α⊂of␈α⊂scienti≡c
␈↓ α,␈↓knowledge is except to characterize certain thoughts as "obscene".


␈↓ α,␈↓α5. Certain people and institutions are attacked.

␈↓ α,␈↓These␈α∩include␈α∩the␈α∩Department␈α∩of␈α∩"Defense"␈α∩(sic),␈α∩␈↓↓Psychology␈α∩Today␈↓,␈α∩the␈α∩␈↓↓New␈α∩York␈α∩Times␈↓␈α∩Data
␈↓ α,␈↓Bank,␈α→compulsive␈α→computer␈α→programmers,␈α→Kenneth␈α→Colby,␈α→Marvin␈α→Minsky,␈α→Roger␈α→Schank,
␈↓ α,␈↓Allen␈α"Newell,␈α"Herbert␈α"Simon,␈α"J.W.␈α" Forrester,␈α"Edward␈α"Fredkin,␈α"B.F.␈α"Skinner,␈α"Warren
␈↓ α,␈↓McCulloch (until he was old), Laplace and Leibniz.
␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓ ⊂F4


␈↓ α,␈↓α6. Certain political and social views are taken for granted.

␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓ α|The␈α∃view␈α∃that␈α∃U.S.␈α∃policy␈α∃in␈α∃Vietnam␈α∃was␈α∃"murderous"␈α∃is␈α∃used␈α∃to␈α∃support␈α∃an␈α∃attack␈α∃on
␈↓ α,␈↓"logicality"␈α⊃(as␈α⊃opposed␈α⊃to␈α⊃"rationality")␈α⊃and␈α⊃the␈α⊃view␈α⊃of␈α⊃science␈α⊃as␈α⊃a␈α⊃"slow␈α⊃acting␈α⊃poison".␈α⊃ The
␈↓ α,␈↓phrase␈α ␈↓↓"It␈α may␈α be␈α that␈α the␈α people's␈α cultivated␈α and␈α ≡nally␈α addictive␈α hunger␈α for␈α private
␈↓ α,␈↓↓automobiles..."␈↓␈α∪(p.30)␈α∪makes␈α∪psychological,␈α∪sociological,␈α∪political,␈α∪and␈α∪technological␈α∪presumptions
␈↓ α,␈↓all␈α∀in␈α∀one␈α∀phrase.␈α∀ Similarly,␈α∀␈↓↓"Men␈α∀could␈α∀instead␈α∀choose␈α∀to␈α∀have␈α∀truly␈α∀safe␈α∀automobiles,␈α∀decent
␈↓ α,␈↓↓television,␈α!decent␈α!housing␈α for␈α!everyone,␈α!or␈α!comfortable,␈α!safe,␈α!and␈α!widely␈α!distributed␈α!mass
␈↓ α,␈↓↓transportation."␈↓␈α∪presumes␈α∪wide␈α∪agreement␈α∪about␈α∪what␈α∪these␈α∪things␈α∪are,␈α∪what␈α∪is␈α∪technologically
␈↓ α,␈↓feasible,␈α∪what␈α∪the␈α∪e≥ects␈α∪of␈α∪changed␈α∪policies␈α∪would␈α∪be,␈α∪and␈α∪what␈α∪activities␈α∪aimed␈α∪at␈α∪changing
␈↓ α,␈↓people's taste are permissible for governments.

␈↓ α,␈↓α␈↓ πRTHE ELIZA EXAMPLE

␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓ α|Perhaps␈α∪the␈α∪most␈α∪interesting␈α∪part␈α∪of␈α∪the␈α∪book␈α∪is␈α∪the␈α∪account␈α∪of␈α∪his␈α∪own␈α∪program␈α∪ELIZA
␈↓ α,␈↓that␈α⊗parodies␈α⊗Rogerian␈α⊗non-directive␈α⊗psychotherapy␈α⊗and␈α⊗his␈α⊗anecdotal␈α⊗account␈α⊗of␈α⊗how␈α⊗some
␈↓ α,␈↓people␈α∪ascribe␈α∪intelligence␈α∪and␈α∪personality␈α∪to␈α∪it.␈α∪ In␈α∪my␈α∪opinion,␈α∪it␈α∪is␈α∪quite␈α∪natural␈α∪for␈α∪people
␈↓ α,␈↓who␈α∂don't␈α∂understand␈α∂the␈α∂notion␈α∂of␈α∂algorithm␈α∂to␈α∂imagine␈α∂that␈α∂a␈α∂computer␈α∂computes␈α∂analogously
␈↓ α,␈↓to␈α∪the␈α∪way␈α∪a␈α∪human␈α∪reasons.␈α∪ This␈α∪leads␈α∪to␈α∪the␈α∪idea␈α∪that␈α∪accurate␈α∪computation␈α∪entails␈α∪correct
␈↓ α,␈↓reasoning␈α∪and␈α∪even␈α∪to␈α∪the␈α∪idea␈α∪that␈α∪computer␈α∪malfunctions␈α∪are␈α∪analogous␈α∪to␈α∪human␈α∪neuroses
␈↓ α,␈↓and␈α≡psychoses.␈α≡ Actually,␈α≡programming␈α≡a␈α≡computer␈α≡to␈α≡draw␈α≡interesting␈α≡conclusions␈α≡from
␈↓ α,␈↓premises␈α⊗is␈α⊗very␈α⊗di≠cult␈α⊗and␈α⊗only␈α⊗limited␈α⊗success␈α⊗has␈α⊗been␈α⊗attained.␈α⊗ However,␈α⊗the␈α⊗e≥ect␈α⊗of
␈↓ α,␈↓these␈α→natural␈α→misconceptions␈α→shouldn't␈α→be␈α→exaggerated;␈α→people␈α→readily␈α→understand␈α→the␈α→truth
␈↓ α,␈↓when␈α∩it␈α∩is␈α∩explained,␈α∩especially␈α∩when␈α∩it␈α∩applies␈α∩to␈α∩a␈α∩matter␈α∩that␈α∩concerns␈α∩them.␈α∩ In␈α∩particular,
␈↓ α,␈↓when␈α⊃an␈α⊃executive␈α⊃excuses␈α⊃a␈α⊃mistake␈α⊃by␈α⊃saying␈α⊃that␈α⊃he␈α⊃placed␈α⊃excessive␈α⊃faith␈α⊃in␈α⊃a␈α⊃computer,␈α⊃a
␈↓ α,␈↓certain skepticism is called for.

␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓ α|Colby's␈α∪(1973)␈α∪study␈α∪is␈α∪interesting␈α∪in␈α∩this␈α∪connection,␈α∪but␈α∪the␈α∪interpretation␈α∪below␈α∪is␈α∪mine.
␈↓ α,␈↓Colby␈α⊃had␈α⊃psychiatrists␈α⊃interview␈α⊃patients␈α⊃over␈α⊃a␈α⊃teletype␈α⊃line␈α⊃and␈α⊃also␈α⊃had␈α⊃them␈α⊃interview␈α⊃his
␈↓ α,␈↓PARRY␈α∂program␈α∂that␈α∂simulates␈α∂a␈α∂paranoid.␈α∂ Other␈α∂psychiatrists␈α∂were␈α∂asked␈α∂to␈α∂decide␈α∂from␈α∂the
␈↓ α,␈↓transcripts␈α∪whether␈α∪the␈α∪interview␈α∪was␈α∪with␈α∪a␈α∪man␈α∪or␈α∪with␈α∪a␈α∪program,␈α∪and␈α∪they␈α∪did␈α∪no␈α∪better
␈↓ α,␈↓than␈α⊂chance.␈α⊂ However,␈α⊂since␈α⊂PARRY␈α⊂is␈α⊂incapable␈α⊂of␈α⊂the␈α⊂simplest␈α⊂causal␈α⊂reasoning,␈α⊂if␈α⊂you␈α⊂ask,
␈↓ α,␈↓"How␈α∃do␈α∃you␈α∃know␈α∃the␈α∃people␈α∃following␈α∃you␈α∃are␈α∃Ma≡a"␈α∃and␈α∃get␈α∃a␈α∃reply␈α∃that␈α∃they␈α∃look␈α∃like
␈↓ α,␈↓Italians,␈α⊂this␈α⊂must␈α⊂be␈α⊂a␈α⊂man␈α⊂not␈α⊂PARRY.␈α⊂ Curiously,␈α⊂it␈α⊂is␈α⊂easier␈α⊂to␈α⊂imitate␈α⊂(well␈α⊂enough␈α⊂to␈α⊂fool
␈↓ α,␈↓a␈α∃psychiatrist)␈α∃the␈α∃emotional␈α∃side␈α∃of␈α∃a␈α∃man␈α∃than␈α∃his␈α∃intellectual␈α∃side.␈α∃ Probably␈α∃the␈α∃subjects
␈↓ α,␈↓expected␈α⊗the␈α⊗machine␈α⊗to␈α⊗have␈α⊗more␈α⊗logical␈α⊗ability,␈α⊗and␈α⊗this␈α⊗expectation␈α⊗contributed␈α⊗to␈α⊗their
␈↓ α,␈↓mistakes.␈α  Alas,␈α random␈α selection␈α from␈α the␈α directory␈α of␈α the␈α Association␈α for␈α Computing
␈↓ α,␈↓Machinery did no better.

␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓ α|It␈α∃seems␈α∃to␈α∃me␈α∃that␈α∃ELIZA␈α∃and␈α∃PARRY␈α∃show␈α∃only␈α∃that␈α∃people,␈α∃including␈α∃psychiatrists,
␈↓ α,␈↓often␈α⊗have␈α⊗to␈α⊗draw␈α⊗conclusions␈α⊗on␈α⊗slight␈α⊗evidence,␈α⊗and␈α⊗are␈α⊗therefore␈α⊗easily␈α⊗fooled.␈α⊗ If␈α⊗I␈α⊗am
␈↓ α,␈↓right, two sentences of instruction would allow them to do better.

␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓ α|In his 1966 paper on ELIZA (cited as 1965), Weizenbaum writes,

␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓↓"One␈α∂goal␈α∂for␈α∂an␈α∂augmented␈α∂ELIZA␈α∂program␈α∂is␈α∂thus␈α∂a␈α∂system␈α∂which␈α∂already␈α∂has␈α∂access␈α∂to␈α∂a␈α∂store
␈↓ α,␈↓↓of␈α≠information␈α≠about␈α≠some␈α≠aspect␈α≠of␈α≠the␈α≠real␈α≠world␈α≠and␈α≠which,␈α≠by␈α≠means␈α≠of␈α≠conversational
␈↓ α,␈↓↓interaction␈α⊗with␈α⊗people,␈α⊗can␈α⊗reveal␈α⊗both␈α⊗what␈α⊗it␈α⊗knows,␈α⊗i.e.␈α⊗behave␈α⊗as␈α⊗an␈α⊗information␈α⊗retrieval
␈↓ α,␈↓↓system,␈α∩and␈α∩where␈α∩its␈α∩knowledge␈α∩ends␈α∩and␈α∩needs␈α∩to␈α∩be␈α∩augmented.␈α∩ Hopefully␈α∩the␈α∩augmentation
␈↓ α,␈↓↓of␈α⊃its␈α⊃knowledge␈α⊃will␈α⊃also␈α⊃be␈α⊃a␈α⊃direct␈α⊃consequence␈α⊃of␈α⊃its␈α⊃conversational␈α⊃experience.␈α⊃ It␈α⊃is␈α⊃precisely
␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓ ⊂F5


␈↓ α,␈↓↓the␈α⊂prospect␈α⊂that␈α⊂such␈α⊂a␈α⊂program␈α⊂will␈α⊂converse␈α⊂with␈α⊂many␈α⊂people␈α⊂and␈α⊂learn␈α⊂something␈α⊂from␈α⊂each
␈↓ α,␈↓↓of␈α∩them␈α∩which␈α∩leads␈α∩to␈α∩the␈α∩hope␈α∩that␈α∩it␈α∩will␈α∩prove␈α∩an␈α∩interesting␈α∩and␈α∩even␈α∩useful␈α∩conversational
␈↓ α,␈↓↓partner."␈↓␈α_Too␈α_bad␈α_he␈α_didn't␈α_successfully␈α_pursue␈α_this␈α_goal;␈α_no-one␈α_else␈α_has.␈α_ I␈α_think␈α_success
␈↓ α,␈↓would have required a better understanding of formalization than is exhibited in the book.

␈↓ α,␈↓α␈↓ ¬`WHAT DOES HE SAY ABOUT COMPUTERS?

␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓ α|While␈α↔Weizenbaum's␈α↔main␈α↔conclusions␈α↔concern␈α↔science␈α↔in␈α↔general␈α↔and␈α↔are␈α↔moralistic␈α↔in
␈↓ α,␈↓character, some of his remarks about computer science and AI are worthy of comment.

␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓ α|1.␈α⊗ He␈α⊗concludes␈α⊗that␈α⊗since␈α⊗a␈α⊗computer␈α⊗cannot␈α⊗have␈α⊗the␈α⊗experience␈α⊗of␈α⊗a␈α⊗man,␈α⊗it␈α⊗cannot
␈↓ α,␈↓understand␈α⊗a␈α⊗man.␈α⊗ There␈α⊗are␈α⊗three␈α⊗points␈α⊗to␈α⊗be␈α⊗made␈α⊗in␈α⊗reply.␈α⊗ First,␈α⊗humans␈α⊗share␈α⊗each
␈↓ α,␈↓other's␈α∀experiences␈α∀and␈α∀those␈α∀of␈α∀machines␈α∀or␈α∀animals␈α∀only␈α∀to␈α∀a␈α∀limited␈α∀extent.␈α∀ In␈α∀particular,
␈↓ α,␈↓men␈α∂and␈α∂women␈α∂have␈α∂di≥erent␈α∂experiences.␈α∂ Nevertheless,␈α∂it␈α∂is␈α∂common␈α∂in␈α∂literature␈α∂for␈α∂a␈α∂good
␈↓ α,␈↓writer␈α∂to␈α∂show␈α∂greater␈α∂understanding␈α∂of␈α∂the␈α∂experience␈α∂of␈α∂the␈α∂opposite␈α∂sex␈α∂than␈α∂a␈α∂poorer␈α∂writer
␈↓ α,␈↓of␈α∩that␈α∩sex.␈α∩ Second,␈α∩the␈α∩notion␈α∩of␈α∩experience␈α∩is␈α∩poorly␈α∩understood;␈α∩if␈α∩we␈α∩understood␈α∩it␈α∩better,
␈↓ α,␈↓we␈α_could␈α_reason␈α_about␈α_whether␈α_a␈α_machine␈α_could␈α_have␈α_a␈α_simulated␈α_or␈α_vicarious␈α_experience
␈↓ α,␈↓normally␈α⊂con≡ned␈α⊂to␈α⊂humans.␈α⊂ Third,␈α⊂what␈α⊂we␈α⊂mean␈α⊂by␈α⊂understanding␈α⊂is␈α⊂poorly␈α⊂understood,␈α⊂so
␈↓ α,␈↓we don't yet know how to de≡ne whether a machine understands something or not.

␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓ α|2.␈α≥Like␈α≥his␈α≥predecessor␈α≥critics␈α≥of␈α≥arti≡cial␈α≥intelligence,␈α≥Taube,␈α≥Dreyfus␈α≥and␈α≥Lighthill,
␈↓ α,␈↓Weizenbaum␈α⊂is␈α⊂impatient,␈α⊂implying␈α⊂that␈α⊂if␈α⊂the␈α⊂problem␈α⊂hasn't␈α⊂been␈α⊂solved␈α⊂in␈α⊂twenty␈α⊂years,␈α⊂it␈α⊂is
␈↓ α,␈↓time␈α⊗to␈α⊗give␈α⊗up.␈α⊗ Genetics␈α⊗took␈α⊗about␈α⊗a␈α⊗century␈α⊗to␈α⊗go␈α⊗from␈α⊗Mendel␈α⊗to␈α⊗the␈α⊗genetic␈α⊗code␈α⊗for
␈↓ α,␈↓proteins,␈α→and␈α→still␈α→has␈α→a␈α→long␈α→way␈α→to␈α→go␈α→before␈α→we␈α→will␈α→fully␈α→understand␈α→the␈α→genetics␈α→and
␈↓ α,␈↓evolution␈α→of␈α→intelligence␈α→and␈α→behavior.␈α→ Arti≡cial␈α→intelligence␈α→may␈α→be␈α→just␈α→as␈α→di≠cult.␈α→ My
␈↓ α,␈↓current␈α∩answer␈α∩to␈α∩the␈α∩question␈α∩of␈α∩when␈α∩machines␈α∩will␈α∩reach␈α∩human-level␈α∩intelligence␈α∩is␈α∩that␈α∩a
␈↓ α,␈↓precise␈α⊃calculation␈α⊃shows␈α⊃that␈α⊃we␈α⊃are␈α⊃between␈α⊃1.7␈α⊃and␈α⊃3.1␈α⊃Einsteins␈α⊃and␈α⊃.3␈α⊃Manhattan␈α⊃Projects
␈↓ α,␈↓away␈α⊂from␈α⊂the␈α⊂goal.␈α⊂ However,␈α⊂the␈α⊂current␈α⊂research␈α⊂is␈α⊂producing␈α⊂the␈α⊂information␈α⊂on␈α⊂which␈α⊂the
␈↓ α,␈↓Einstein will base himself and is producing useful capabilities all the time.

␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓ α|3.␈α⊂The␈α⊂book␈α⊂confuses␈α⊂computer␈α⊂simulation␈α⊂of␈α∂a␈α⊂phenomenon␈α⊂with␈α⊂its␈α⊂formalization␈α⊂in␈α⊂logic.
␈↓ α,␈↓A␈α_simulation␈α_is␈α_only␈α_one␈α_kind␈α_of␈α_formalization␈α_and␈α_not␈α_often␈α_the␈α_most␈α_useful␈α_-␈α_even␈α_to␈α_a
␈↓ α,␈↓computer.␈α$ In␈α$the␈α$≡rst␈α$place,␈α$logical␈α$and␈α$mathematical␈α$formalizations␈α$can␈α$use␈α$partial
␈↓ α,␈↓information␈α_about␈α_a␈α_system␈α_insu≠cient␈α_for␈α_a␈α_simulation.␈α_ Thus␈α_the␈α_law␈α_of␈α_conservation␈α_of
␈↓ α,␈↓energy␈α∃tells␈α∃us␈α∃much␈α∃about␈α∃possible␈α∃energy␈α∃conversion␈α∃systems␈α∃before␈α∃we␈α∃de≡ne␈α∃even␈α∃one␈α∃of
␈↓ α,␈↓them.␈α∂ Even␈α∂when␈α∂a␈α∂simulation␈α∂program␈α∂is␈α∂available,␈α∂other␈α∂formalizations␈α∂are␈α∂necessary␈α∂even␈α∂to
␈↓ α,␈↓make␈α⊗good␈α⊗use␈α⊗of␈α⊗the␈α⊗simulation.␈α⊗ This␈α⊗review␈α⊗isn't␈α⊗the␈α⊗place␈α⊗for␈α⊗a␈α⊗full␈α⊗explanation␈α⊗of␈α⊗the
␈↓ α,␈↓relations between these concepts.

␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓ α|Like␈α∪␈↓↓Punch␈↓'s␈α∪famous␈α∪curate's␈α∪egg,␈α∪the␈α∩book␈α∪is␈α∪good␈α∪in␈α∪parts.␈α∪ Thus␈α∪it␈α∪raises␈α∪the␈α∪following
␈↓ α,␈↓interesting issues:

␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓ α|1.␈α⊂What␈α⊂would␈α⊂it␈α⊂mean␈α⊂for␈α⊂a␈α⊂computer␈α⊂to␈α⊂hope␈α⊂or␈α⊂be␈α⊂desperate␈α⊂for␈α⊂love?␈α⊂ Answers␈α⊂to␈α⊂these
␈↓ α,␈↓questions␈α∃depend␈α∃on␈α∃being␈α∃able␈α∃to␈α∃formalize␈α∃(not␈α∃simulate)␈α∃the␈α∃phenomena␈α∃in␈α∃question.␈α∃ My
␈↓ α,␈↓guess␈α⊃is␈α⊃that␈α⊃adding␈α⊃a␈α⊃notion␈α⊃of␈α⊃hope␈α⊃to␈α⊃an␈α⊃axiomatization␈α⊃of␈α⊃belief␈α⊃and␈α⊃wanting␈α⊃might␈α⊃not␈α⊃be
␈↓ α,␈↓di≠cult.  The study of ␈↓↓propositional attitudes␈↓ in philosophical logic points in that direction.

␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓ α|2.␈α≠ Do␈α≠di≥erences␈α≠in␈α≠experience␈α≠make␈α≠human␈α≠and␈α≠machine␈α≠intelligence␈α≠necessarily␈α≠so
␈↓ α,␈↓di≥erent␈α~that␈α~it␈α~is␈α~meaningless␈α~to␈α~ask␈α~whether␈α~a␈α~machine␈α~can␈α~be␈α~more␈α~intelligent␈α~than␈α~a
␈↓ α,␈↓machine?␈α∂ My␈α∂opinion␈α∂is␈α∂that␈α∂comparison␈α∂will␈α∂turn␈α∂out␈α∂to␈α∂be␈α∂meaningful.␈α∂ After␈α∂all,␈α∂most␈α∂people
␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓ ⊂F6


␈↓ α,␈↓have␈α⊂not␈α⊂doubt␈α⊂that␈α⊂humans␈α⊂are␈α⊂more␈α⊂intelligent␈α⊂than␈α⊂turkeys.␈α⊂ Weizenbaum's␈α⊂examples␈α⊂of␈α⊂the
␈↓ α,␈↓dependence␈α∂of␈α∂human␈α∂intelligence␈α∂on␈α∂sensory␈α∂abilities␈α∂seem␈α∂even␈α∂refutable,␈α∂because␈α∂we␈α∂recognize
␈↓ α,␈↓no␈α⊂fundamental␈α⊂di≥erence␈α⊂in␈α⊂humanness␈α⊂in␈α⊂people␈α⊂who␈α⊂are␈α⊂severely␈α⊂handicapped␈α⊂sensorily,␈α⊂e.g.
␈↓ α,␈↓the deaf, dumb and blind or paraplegics.

␈↓ α,␈↓α␈↓ αGIN DEFENSE OF THE UNJUSTLY ATTACKED - SOME OF WHOM ARE INNOCENT

␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓ α|Here␈α∀are␈α∀defenses␈α∀of␈α∀Weizenbaum's␈α∀targets.␈α∀ They␈α∀are␈α∀not␈α∀guaranteed␈α∀to␈α∀entirely␈α∀suit␈α∀the
␈↓ α,␈↓defendees.

␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓ α|Weizenbaum's␈α∂conjecture␈α∂that␈α∂the␈α∂Defense␈α∂Department␈α∂supports␈α∂speech␈α∂recognition␈α∂research
␈↓ α,␈↓in␈α⊗order␈α⊗to␈α⊗be␈α⊗able␈α⊗to␈α⊗snoop␈α⊗on␈α⊗telephone␈α⊗conversations␈α⊗is␈α⊗biased,␈α⊗baseless,␈α⊗false,␈α⊗and␈α⊗seems
␈↓ α,␈↓motivated␈α∩by␈α∩political␈α∩malice.␈α∩ The␈α∩committee␈α∩of␈α∩scientists␈α∩that␈α∩proposed␈α∩the␈α∩project␈α∩advanced
␈↓ α,␈↓quite␈α⊂di≥erent␈α⊂considerations,␈α⊂and␈α⊂the␈α⊂high␈α⊂o≠cials␈α⊂who␈α⊂made␈α⊂the␈α⊂≡nal␈α⊂decisions␈α⊂are␈α⊂not␈α⊂ogres.
␈↓ α,␈↓Anyway␈α$their␈α$other␈α$responsibilities␈α$leave␈α$them␈α$no␈α$time␈α$for␈α$complicated␈α$and␈α$devious
␈↓ α,␈↓considerations.␈α⊃ I␈α⊃put␈α⊃this␈α⊃one␈α⊃≡rst,␈α⊃because␈α⊃I␈α⊃think␈α⊃the␈α⊃failure␈α⊃of␈α⊃many␈α⊃scientists␈α⊃to␈α⊃defend␈α⊃the
␈↓ α,␈↓Defense␈α!Department␈α!against␈α!attacks␈α!they␈α!know␈α!are␈α!unjusti≡ed,␈α!is␈α!unjust␈α!in␈α!itself,␈α!and
␈↓ α,␈↓furthermore has harmed the country.

␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓ α|Weizenbaum␈α∪doubts␈α∪that␈α∪computer␈α∪speech␈α∪recognition␈α∪will␈α∪have␈α∪cost-e≥ective␈α∪applications
␈↓ α,␈↓beyond␈α⊃snooping␈α⊃on␈α⊃phone␈α⊃conversations.␈α⊃ He␈α⊃also␈α⊃says,␈α⊃␈↓↓"There␈α⊃is␈α⊃no␈α⊃question␈α⊃in␈α⊃my␈α⊃mind␈α⊃that
␈↓ α,␈↓↓there␈α⊃is␈α⊃no␈α⊃pressing␈α⊃human␈α⊃problem␈α⊃that␈α⊃will␈α⊃be␈α⊃more␈α⊃easily␈α⊃solved␈α⊃because␈α⊃such␈α⊃machines␈α⊃exist"␈↓.
␈↓ α,␈↓I␈α_worry␈α_more␈α_about␈α_whether␈α_the␈α_programs␈α_can␈α_be␈α_made␈α_to␈α_work␈α_before␈α_the␈α_sponsor␈α_loses
␈↓ α,␈↓patience.␈α_ Once␈α_they␈α_work,␈α_costs␈α_will␈α_come␈α_down.␈α_ Winograd␈α_pointed␈α_out␈α_to␈α_me␈α_that␈α_many
␈↓ α,␈↓possible␈α≠household␈α≠applications␈α≠of␈α≠computers␈α≠may␈α≠not␈α≠be␈α≠feasible␈α≠without␈α≠some␈α≠computer
␈↓ α,␈↓speech␈α↔recognition.␈α↔ One␈α↔needs␈α↔to␈α↔think␈α↔␈↓αboth␈↓␈α↔about␈α↔how␈α↔to␈α↔solve␈α↔recognized␈α↔problems␈α↔␈↓αand␈↓
␈↓ α,␈↓about␈α∪opportunities␈α∪to␈α∪put␈α∪new␈α∪technological␈α∪possibilities␈α∪to␈α∪good␈α∪use.␈α∪ The␈α∪telephone␈α∪was␈α∪not
␈↓ α,␈↓invented by a committee considering already identi≡ed problems of communication.

␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓ α|Referring␈α_to␈α_␈↓↓Psychology␈α_Today␈↓␈α_as␈α_a␈α_cafeteria␈α_simply␈α_excites␈α_the␈α_snobbery␈α_of␈α_those␈α_who
␈↓ α,␈↓would␈α⊂like␈α⊂to␈α⊂consider␈α⊂their␈α⊂psychological␈α⊂knowledge␈α⊂to␈α⊂be␈α⊂above␈α⊂the␈α⊂popular␈α⊂level.␈α⊂ So␈α⊂far␈α⊂as␈α⊂I
␈↓ α,␈↓know,␈α∀professional␈α∀and␈α∀academic␈α∀psychologists␈α∀welcome␈α∀the␈α∀opportunity␈α∀o≥ered␈α∀by␈α∀␈↓↓Psychology
␈↓ α,␈↓↓Today␈↓␈α∃to␈α∃explain␈α∃their␈α∃ideas␈α∃to␈α∃a␈α∃wide␈α∃public.␈α∃ They␈α∃might␈α∃even␈α∃buy␈α∃a␈α∃cut-down␈α∃version␈α∃of
␈↓ α,␈↓Weizenbaum's book if he asks them nicely.  Hmm, they might even buy this review.

␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓ α|Weizenbaum␈α∩has␈α∩invented␈α∩a␈α∩␈↓↓New␈α∩York␈α∩Times␈α∩Data␈α∩Bank␈↓␈α∩di≥erent␈α∩from␈α∩the␈α∩one␈α∩operated
␈↓ α,␈↓by␈α⊂the␈α⊂␈↓↓New␈α⊂York␈α⊂Times␈↓␈α⊂-␈α⊂and␈α⊂possibly␈α⊂better.␈α⊂ The␈α⊂real␈α⊂one␈α⊂stores␈α⊂abstracts␈α⊂written␈α⊂by␈α⊂humans
␈↓ α,␈↓and␈α∃doesn't␈α∃use␈α∃the␈α∃tapes␈α∃intended␈α∃for␈α∃typesetting␈α∃machines.␈α∃ As␈α∃a␈α∃result␈α∃the␈α∃user␈α∃has␈α∃access
␈↓ α,␈↓only␈α⊂to␈α⊂abstracts␈α⊂and␈α⊂cannot␈α⊂search␈α⊂on␈α⊂features␈α⊂of␈α⊂the␈α⊂stories␈α⊂themselves,␈α⊂i.e.␈α⊂ he␈α⊂is␈α⊂at␈α⊂the␈α⊂mercy
␈↓ α,␈↓of what the abstractors thought was important at the time.

␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓ α|Using␈α↔computer␈α↔programs␈α↔as␈α↔psychotherapists,␈α↔as␈α↔Colby␈α↔proposed,␈α↔would␈α↔be␈α↔moral␈α↔if␈α↔it
␈↓ α,␈↓would␈α∩cure␈α∩people.␈α∩ Unfortunately,␈α∩computer␈α∩science␈α∩isn't␈α∩up␈α∩to␈α∩it,␈α∩and␈α∩maybe␈α∩the␈α∩psychiatrists
␈↓ α,␈↓aren't either.

␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓ α|I␈α⊂agree␈α⊂with␈α⊂Minsky␈α⊂in␈α⊂criticizing␈α⊂the␈α⊂reluctance␈α⊂of␈α⊂art␈α⊂theorists␈α⊂to␈α⊂develop␈α⊂formal␈α⊂theories.
␈↓ α,␈↓George␈α⊂Birkho≥'s␈α⊂formal␈α⊂theory␈α⊂was␈α⊂probably␈α⊂wrong,␈α⊂but␈α⊂he␈α⊂shouldn't␈α⊂have␈α⊂been␈α⊂criticized␈α⊂for
␈↓ α,␈↓trying.␈α∃ The␈α∃problem␈α∃seems␈α∃very␈α∃di≠cult␈α∃to␈α∃me,␈α∃and␈α∃I␈α∃have␈α∃made␈α∃no␈α∃signi≡cant␈α∃progress␈α∃in
␈↓ α,␈↓responding␈α∂to␈α∂a␈α∂challenge␈α∂from␈α∂Arthur␈α∂Koestler␈α∂to␈α∂tell␈α∂how␈α∂a␈α∂computer␈α∂program␈α∂might␈α∂make␈α∂or
␈↓ α,␈↓even recognize jokes.  Perhaps some reader of this review might have more success.
␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓ ⊂F7


␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓ α|There␈α∂is␈α∂a␈α∂whole␈α∂chapter␈α∂attacking␈α∂"compulsive␈α∂computer␈α∂programmers"␈α∂or␈α∂"hackers".␈α∂ This
␈↓ α,␈↓mythical␈α∂beast␈α∂lives␈α∂in␈α∂the␈α∂computer␈α∂laboratory,␈α∂is␈α∂an␈α∂expert␈α∂on␈α∂all␈α∂the␈α∂ins␈α∂and␈α∂outs␈α∂of␈α∂the␈α∂time-
␈↓ α,␈↓sharing␈α"system,␈α"elaborates␈α"the␈α"time-sharing␈α"system␈α"with␈α"arcane␈α"features␈α"that␈α"he␈α"never
␈↓ α,␈↓documents,␈α∀and␈α∀is␈α∀always␈α∀changing␈α∀the␈α∀system␈α∀before␈α∀he␈α∀even␈α∀≡xes␈α∀the␈α∀bugs␈α∀in␈α∀the␈α∀previous
␈↓ α,␈↓version.␈α⊗ All␈α⊗these␈α⊗vices␈α⊗exist,␈α⊗but␈α⊗I␈α⊗can't␈α⊗think␈α⊗of␈α⊗any␈α⊗individual␈α⊗who␈α⊗combines␈α⊗them,␈α⊗and
␈↓ α,␈↓people␈α↔generally␈α↔outgrow␈α↔them.␈α↔ As␈α↔a␈α↔laboratory␈α↔director,␈α↔I␈α↔have␈α↔to␈α↔protect␈α↔the␈α↔interests␈α↔of
␈↓ α,␈↓people␈α∩who␈α∩program␈α∩only␈α∩part␈α∩time␈α∩against␈α⊃tendencies␈α∩to␈α∩over-complicate␈α∩the␈α∩facilities.␈α∩ People
␈↓ α,␈↓who␈α_spend␈α_all␈α_their␈α_time␈α_programming␈α_and␈α_who␈α_exchange␈α_information␈α_by␈α_word␈α_of␈α_mouth
␈↓ α,␈↓sometimes␈α⊃have␈α⊃to␈α⊃be␈α⊃pressed␈α⊃to␈α⊃make␈α⊃proper␈α⊃writeups.␈α⊃ The␈α⊃other␈α⊃side␈α⊃of␈α⊃the␈α⊃issue␈α⊃is␈α⊃that␈α⊃we
␈↓ α,␈↓professors␈α⊗of␈α⊗computer␈α⊗science␈α⊗sometimes␈α⊗lose␈α⊗our␈α⊗ability␈α⊗to␈α⊗write␈α⊗actual␈α⊗computer␈α⊗programs
␈↓ α,␈↓through␈α∪lack␈α∪of␈α∪practice␈α∪and␈α∪envy␈α∪younger␈α∪people␈α∪who␈α∪can␈α∪spend␈α∪full␈α∪time␈α∪in␈α∪the␈α∪laboratory.
␈↓ α,␈↓The phenomenon is well known in other sciences and in other human activities.

␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓ α|Weizenbaum␈α→attacks␈α→the␈α→Yale␈α→computer␈α→linguist,␈α→Roger␈α→Schank,␈α→as␈α→follows␈α→-␈α→the␈α→inner
␈↓ α,␈↓quotes␈α⊃are␈α⊃from␈α⊃Schank:␈α⊃␈↓↓"What␈α⊃is␈α⊃contributed␈α⊃when␈α⊃it␈α⊃is␈α⊃asserted␈α⊃that␈α⊃'there␈α⊃exists␈α⊃a␈α⊃conceptual
␈↓ α,␈↓↓base␈α∀that␈α∀is␈α∀interlingual,␈α∀onto␈α∀which␈α∀linguistic␈α∀structures␈α∀in␈α∀a␈α∀given␈α∀language␈α∀map␈α∀during␈α∀the
␈↓ α,␈↓↓understanding␈α~process␈α~and␈α~out␈α~of␈α~which␈α~such␈α~structures␈α~are␈α~created␈α~during␈α~generation␈α~[of
␈↓ α,␈↓↓linguistic␈α∃utterances]'?␈α∃ Nothing␈α∃at␈α∃all.␈α∃ For␈α∃the␈α∃term␈α∃'conceptual␈α∃base'␈α∃could␈α∃perfectly␈α∃well␈α∃be
␈↓ α,␈↓↓replaced␈α↔by␈α↔the␈α↔word␈α↔'something'.␈α↔ And␈α↔who␈α↔could␈α↔argue␈α↔with␈α↔that␈α↔so-transformed␈α↔statement?"␈↓
␈↓ α,␈↓Weizenbaum␈α∂goes␈α∂on␈α∂to␈α∂say␈α∂that␈α∂the␈α∂real␈α∂scienti≡c␈α∂problem␈α∂"remains␈α∂as␈α∂untouched␈α∂as␈α∂ever".␈α∂ On
␈↓ α,␈↓the␈α∪next␈α∪page␈α∪he␈α∪says␈α∪that␈α∪unless␈α∪the␈α∪"Schank-like␈α∪scheme"␈α∪understood␈α∪the␈α∪sentence␈α∪␈↓↓"Will␈α∪you
␈↓ α,␈↓↓come␈α∪to␈α∪dinner␈α∪with␈α∪me␈α∪this␈α∪evening?"␈↓␈α∪to␈α∪mean␈α∪␈↓↓"a␈α∪shy␈α∪young␈α∪man's␈α∪desperate␈α∪longing␈α∪for␈α∪love␈↓,
␈↓ α,␈↓then␈α↔the␈α↔sense␈α↔in␈α↔which␈α↔the␈α↔system␈α↔"understands"␈α↔is␈α↔"about␈α↔as␈α↔weak␈α↔as␈α↔the␈α↔sense␈α↔in␈α↔which
␈↓ α,␈↓ELIZA␈α∪"understood"".␈α∪ This␈α∪good␈α∪example␈α∪raises␈α∪interesting␈α∪issues␈α∪and␈α∪seems␈α∪to␈α∪call␈α∪for␈α∪some
␈↓ α,␈↓distinctions.␈α↔ Full␈α↔understanding␈α↔of␈α↔the␈α↔sentence␈α↔indeed␈α↔results␈α↔in␈α↔knowing␈α↔about␈α↔the␈α↔young
␈↓ α,␈↓man's␈α∩desire␈α∩for␈α∩love,␈α∩but␈α∩it␈α∩would␈α∩seem␈α∩that␈α∩there␈α∩is␈α∩a␈α∩useful␈α∩lesser␈α∩level␈α∩of␈α∩understanding␈α∩in
␈↓ α,␈↓which the machine would know only that he would like her to come to dinner.

␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓ α|Contrast␈α&Weizenbaum's␈α&demanding,␈α&more-human-than-thou␈α&attitude␈α&to␈α&Schank␈α&and
␈↓ α,␈↓Winograd␈α≠with␈α≠his␈α≠respectful␈α≠and␈α≠even␈α≠obsequious␈α≠attitude␈α≠to␈α≠Chomsky.␈α≠ We␈α≠have␈α≠␈↓↓"The
␈↓ α,␈↓↓linguist's␈α⊂≡rst␈α⊂task␈α⊂is␈α⊂therefore␈α⊂to␈α⊂write␈α⊂grammars,␈α⊂that␈α⊂is,␈α⊂sets␈α⊂of␈α⊂rules,␈α⊂of␈α⊂particular␈α⊂languages,
␈↓ α,␈↓↓grammars␈α∩capable␈α∩of␈α∩characterizing␈α∩all␈α∩and␈α∩only␈α∩the␈α∩grammatically␈α∩admissible␈α∩sentences␈α∩of␈α∩those
␈↓ α,␈↓↓languages,␈α∂and␈α∂then␈α∂to␈α∂postulate␈α∂principles␈α∂from␈α∂which␈α∂crucial␈α∂features␈α∂of␈α∂all␈α∂such␈α∂grammars␈α∂can
␈↓ α,␈↓↓be␈α~deduced.␈α~ That␈α~set␈α~of␈α~principles␈α~would␈α~then␈α~constitute␈α~a␈α~universal␈α~grammar.␈α~ Chomsky's
␈↓ α,␈↓↓hypothesis␈α⊃is,␈α⊃to␈α⊃put␈α⊃it␈α⊃another␈α⊃way,␈α⊃that␈α⊃the␈α⊃rules␈α⊃of␈α⊃such␈α⊃a␈α⊃universal␈α⊃grammar␈α⊃would␈α⊃constitute
␈↓ α,␈↓↓a␈α⊂kind␈α⊂of␈α⊂projective␈α⊂description␈α⊂of␈α⊂important␈α⊂aspects␈α⊂of␈α⊂the␈α⊂human␈α⊂mind."␈↓␈α⊂There␈α⊂is␈α⊂nothing␈α⊂here
␈↓ α,␈↓demanding␈α⊃that␈α⊃the␈α⊃universal␈α⊃grammar␈α⊃take␈α⊃into␈α⊃account␈α⊃the␈α⊃young␈α⊃man's␈α⊃desire␈α⊃for␈α⊃love.␈α⊃ As
␈↓ α,␈↓far as I can see, Chomsky is just as much a rationalist as we arti≡cial intelligentsia.

␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓ α|Chomsky's␈α∂goal␈α∂of␈α∂a␈α∂universal␈α∂grammar␈α∂and␈α∂Schank's␈α∂goal␈α∂of␈α∂a␈α∂conceptual␈α∂base␈α∂are␈α∂similar,
␈↓ α,␈↓except␈α≡that␈α≡Schank's␈α≡ideas␈α≡are␈α≡further␈α≡developed,␈α≡and␈α≡the␈α≡performance␈α≡of␈α≡his␈α≡students'
␈↓ α,␈↓programs␈α⊂can␈α⊂be␈α⊂compared␈α⊂with␈α⊂reality.␈α⊂ I␈α⊂think␈α⊂they␈α⊂will␈α⊂require␈α⊂drastic␈α⊂revision␈α⊂and␈α⊂may␈α⊂not
␈↓ α,␈↓be␈α≠on␈α≠the␈α≠right␈α≠track␈α≠at␈α≠all,␈α≠but␈α≠then␈α≠I␈α≠am␈α≠pursuing␈α≠a␈α≠rather␈α≠di≥erent␈α≠line␈α≠of␈α≠research
␈↓ α,␈↓concerning␈α_how␈α_to␈α_represent␈α_the␈α_basic␈α_facts␈α_that␈α_an␈α_intelligent␈α_being␈α_must␈α_know␈α_about␈α_the
␈↓ α,␈↓world.␈α~ My␈α~idea␈α~is␈α~to␈α~start␈α~from␈α~epistemology␈α~rather␈α~than␈α~from␈α~language,␈α~regarding␈α~their
␈↓ α,␈↓linguistic␈α∃representation␈α∃as␈α∃secondary.␈α∃ This␈α∃approach␈α∃has␈α∃proved␈α∃di≠cult,␈α∃has␈α∃attracted␈α∃few
␈↓ α,␈↓practitioners, and has led to few computer programs, but I still think it's right.

␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓ α|Weizenbaum␈α$approves␈α$of␈α#the␈α$Chomsky␈α$school's␈α$haughty␈α$attitude␈α$towards␈α$Schank,
␈↓ α,␈↓Winograd␈α∩and␈α∩other␈α∩AI␈α∩based␈α∩language␈α∩researchers.␈α∩ On␈α∩page␈α∩184,␈α∩he␈α∩states,␈α∩␈↓↓"many␈α∩linguists,
␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓ ⊂F8


␈↓ α,␈↓↓for␈α⊃example,␈α⊃Noam␈α⊃Chomsky,␈α⊃believe␈α⊃that␈α⊃enough␈α⊃thinking␈α⊃about␈α⊃language␈α⊃remains␈α⊃to␈α⊃be␈α⊃done␈α⊃to
␈↓ α,␈↓↓occupy␈α∀them␈α∀usefully␈α∀for␈α∀yet␈α∀a␈α∀little␈α∀while,␈α∀and␈α∀that␈α∀any␈α∀e≥ort␈α∀to␈α∀convert␈α∀their␈α∀present␈α∀theories
␈↓ α,␈↓↓into␈α∃computer␈α∃models␈α∃would,␈α∃if␈α∃attempted␈α∃by␈α∃the␈α∃people␈α∃best␈α∃quali≡ed,␈α∃be␈α∃a␈α∃diversion␈α∃from␈α∃the
␈↓ α,␈↓↓main␈α⊂task.␈α⊂ And␈α⊂they␈α⊂rightly␈α⊂see␈α⊂no␈α⊂point␈α⊂to␈α⊂spending␈α⊂any␈α⊂of␈α⊂their␈α⊂energies␈α⊂studying␈α⊂the␈α⊂work␈α⊂of
␈↓ α,␈↓↓the hackers."␈↓

␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓ α|This␈α→brings␈α→the␈α→chapter␈α→on␈α→"compulsive␈α→computer␈α→programmers"␈α→alias␈α→"hackers"␈α→into␈α→a
␈↓ α,␈↓sharper␈α⊃focus.␈α⊃ Chomsky's␈α⊃latest␈α⊃book␈α⊃␈↓↓Re∨ections␈α⊃on␈α⊃Language␈↓␈α⊃makes␈α⊃no␈α⊃reference␈α⊃to␈α⊃the␈α⊃work
␈↓ α,␈↓of␈α⊗Winograd,␈α⊗Schank,␈α⊗Charniak,␈α⊗Wilks,␈α⊗Bobrow␈α⊗or␈α⊗William␈α⊗Woods␈α⊗to␈α⊗name␈α⊗only␈α⊗a␈α⊗few␈α⊗of
␈↓ α,␈↓those␈α∀who␈α∀have␈α∀developed␈α∀large␈α∀computer␈α∀systems␈α∀that␈α∀work␈α∀with␈α∀natural␈α∀language␈α∀and␈α∀who
␈↓ α,␈↓write␈α∪papers␈α∪on␈α∪the␈α∪semantics␈α∪of␈α∪natural␈α∪language.␈α∪ The␈α∪actual␈α∪young␈α∪computer␈α∪programmers
␈↓ α,␈↓who␈α∪call␈α∪themselves␈α∪hackers␈α∪and␈α∪who␈α∪come␈α∪closest␈α∪to␈α∪meeting␈α∪Weizenbaum's␈α∪description␈α∪don't
␈↓ α,␈↓write␈α∂papers␈α∂on␈α∂natural␈α∂language.␈α∂ So␈α∂it␈α∂seems␈α∂that␈α∂the␈α∂hackers␈α∂whose␈α∂work␈α∂need␈α∂not␈α∂be␈α∂studied
␈↓ α,␈↓are␈α∩Winograd,␈α∩Schank,␈α∩et.␈α∩ al.␈α∩ who␈α∩are␈α∩professors␈α∩and␈α∩senior␈α∩scientists.␈α∩ The␈α∩Chomsky␈α∩school
␈↓ α,␈↓may␈α↔be␈α↔embarassed␈α↔by␈α↔the␈α↔fact␈α↔that␈α↔it␈α↔has␈α↔only␈α↔recently␈α↔arrived␈α↔at␈α↔the␈α↔conclusion␈α↔that␈α↔the
␈↓ α,␈↓semantics␈α⊃of␈α⊃natural␈α⊃language␈α⊃is␈α⊃more␈α⊃fundamental␈α⊃than␈α⊃its␈α⊃syntax,␈α⊃while␈α⊃AI␈α⊃based␈α⊃researchers
␈↓ α,␈↓have been pursuing this line for ≡fteen years.

␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓ α|The␈α⊗outside␈α⊗observer␈α⊗should␈α⊗be␈α⊗aware␈α⊗that␈α⊗to␈α⊗some␈α⊗extent␈α⊗this␈α⊗is␈α⊗a␈α⊗pillow␈α⊗≡ght␈α⊗within
␈↓ α,␈↓M.I.T.␈α∂ Chomsky␈α∂and␈α∂Halle␈α∂are␈α∂not␈α∂to␈α∂be␈α∂dislodged␈α∂from␈α∂M.I.T.␈α∂ and␈α∂neither␈α∂is␈α∂Minsky␈α∂-␈α∂whose
␈↓ α,␈↓students␈α⊃have␈α⊃pioneered␈α⊃the␈α⊃AI␈α⊃approach␈α⊃to␈α⊃natural␈α⊃language.␈α⊃ Schank␈α⊃is␈α⊃quite␈α⊃secure␈α⊃at␈α⊃Yale.
␈↓ α,␈↓Weizenbaum␈α∪also␈α∪has␈α∪tenure.␈α∪ However,␈α∪some␈α∪assistant␈α∪professorships␈α∪in␈α∪linguistics␈α∪may␈α∪be␈α∪at
␈↓ α,␈↓stake, especially at M.I.T.

␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓ α|Allen␈α⊂Newell␈α⊂and␈α⊂Herbert␈α⊂Simon␈α⊂are␈α⊂criticized␈α⊂for␈α⊂being␈α⊂overoptimistic␈α⊂and␈α⊂are␈α⊂considered
␈↓ α,␈↓morally␈α∩defective␈α∩for␈α∩attempting␈α∩to␈α∩describe␈α∩humans␈α∩as␈α∩di≥erence-reducing␈α∩machines.␈α∩ Simon's
␈↓ α,␈↓view␈α⊂that␈α⊂the␈α⊂human␈α⊂is␈α⊂a␈α⊂simple␈α⊂system␈α⊂in␈α⊂a␈α⊂complex␈α⊂environment␈α⊂is␈α⊂singled␈α⊂out␈α⊂for␈α⊂attack.␈α⊂ In
␈↓ α,␈↓my␈α∪opinion,␈α∪they␈α∪were␈α∪overoptimistic,␈α∪because␈α∪their␈α∪GPS␈α∪model␈α∪on␈α∪which␈α∪they␈α∪put␈α∪their␈α∪bets
␈↓ α,␈↓wasn't␈α∂good␈α∂enough.␈α∂ Maybe␈α∂Newell's␈α∂current␈α∂␈↓↓production␈α∂system␈α∂models␈↓␈α∂will␈α∂work␈α∂out␈α∂better.␈α∂ As
␈↓ α,␈↓to␈α⊂whether␈α⊂human␈α⊂mental␈α⊂structure␈α⊂will␈α⊂eventually␈α⊂turn␈α⊂out␈α⊂to␈α⊂be␈α⊂simple,␈α⊂I␈α⊂vacillate␈α⊂but␈α⊂incline
␈↓ α,␈↓to the view that it will turn out to be one of the most complex biological phenomena.

␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓ α|I␈α⊂regard␈α⊂Forrester's␈α⊂models␈α⊂as␈α⊂incapable␈α⊂of␈α⊂taking␈α⊂into␈α⊂account␈α⊂qualitative␈α⊂changes,␈α⊂and␈α⊂the
␈↓ α,␈↓world␈α↔models␈α↔they␈α↔have␈α↔built␈α↔as␈α↔defective␈α↔even␈α↔in␈α↔their␈α↔own␈α↔terms,␈α↔because␈α↔they␈α↔leave␈α↔out
␈↓ α,␈↓saturation-of-demand␈α⊗e≥ects␈α⊗that␈α⊗cannot␈α⊗be␈α⊗discovered␈α⊗by␈α⊗curve-≡tting␈α⊗as␈α⊗long␈α⊗as␈α⊗a␈α⊗sytem␈α⊗is
␈↓ α,␈↓rate-of-expansion␈α∩limited.␈α∩ Moreover,␈α∩I␈α∩don't␈α∩accept␈α∩his␈α∩claim␈α∩that␈α∩his␈α∩models␈α∩are␈α∩better␈α∩suited
␈↓ α,␈↓than␈α⊂the␈α⊂unaided␈α⊂mind␈α⊂in␈α⊂"interpreting␈α⊂how␈α⊂social␈α⊂systems␈α⊂behave",␈α⊂but␈α⊂Weizenbaum's␈α⊂sarcasm
␈↓ α,␈↓on␈α⊃page␈α⊃246␈α⊃is␈α⊃unconvincing.␈α⊃ He␈α⊃quotes␈α⊃Forrester,␈α⊃"[desirable␈α⊃modes␈α⊃of␈α⊃behavior␈α⊃of␈α⊃the␈α⊃social
␈↓ α,␈↓system]␈α⊂␈↓↓seem␈α⊂to␈α⊂be␈α⊂possible␈α⊂only␈α⊂if␈α⊂we␈α⊂have␈α⊂a␈α⊂good␈α⊂understanding␈α⊂of␈α⊂the␈α⊂system␈α⊂dynamics␈α⊂and␈α⊂are
␈↓ α,␈↓↓willing␈α↔to␈α↔endure␈α↔the␈α↔self-discipline␈α↔and␈α↔pressures␈α↔that␈α↔must␈α↔accompany␈α↔the␈α↔desirable␈α↔mode"␈↓.
␈↓ α,␈↓Weizenbaum␈α↔comments,␈α↔␈↓↓"There␈α↔is␈α↔undoubtedly␈α↔some␈α↔interpretation␈α↔of␈α↔the␈α↔words␈α↔'system'␈α↔and
␈↓ α,␈↓↓'dynamics'␈α⊂which␈α⊂would␈α⊂lend␈α⊂a␈α⊂benign␈α⊂meaning␈α⊂to␈α⊂this␈α⊂observation"␈↓.␈α⊂ Sorry,␈α⊂but␈α⊂it␈α⊂looks␈α⊂ok␈α⊂to␈α⊂me
␈↓ α,␈↓provided␈α~one␈α~is␈α~suitably␈α~critical␈α~of␈α~Forrester's␈α~proposed␈α~social␈α~goals␈α~and␈α~the␈α~possibility␈α~of
␈↓ α,␈↓making the necessary assumptions and putting them into his models.

␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓ α|Skinner's␈α⊂behaviorism␈α⊂that␈α⊂refuses␈α⊂to␈α⊂assign␈α⊂reality␈α∂to␈α⊂people's␈α⊂internal␈α⊂state␈α⊂seems␈α⊂wrong␈α⊂to
␈↓ α,␈↓me, but we can't call him immoral for trying to convince us of what he thinks is true.

␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓ α|Weizenbaum␈α≤quotes␈α≤Edward␈α≤Fredkin,␈α≤former␈α≤director␈α≤of␈α≤Project␈α≤MAC,␈α≤and␈α≤the␈α≤late
␈↓ α,␈↓Warren␈α⊂McCulloch␈α⊂of␈α⊂M.I.T.␈α⊂without␈α⊂giving␈α⊂their␈α⊂names.␈α⊂pp.␈α⊂241␈α⊂and␈α⊂240.␈α⊂ Perhaps␈α⊂he␈α⊂thinks
␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓ ⊂F9


␈↓ α,␈↓a␈α∂few␈α∂puzzles␈α∂will␈α∂make␈α∂the␈α∂book␈α∂more␈α∂interesting,␈α∂and␈α∂this␈α∂is␈α∂so.␈α∂ Fredkin's␈α∂plea␈α∂for␈α∂research␈α∂in
␈↓ α,␈↓automatic␈α∂programming␈α∂seems␈α∂to␈α∂overestimate␈α∂the␈α∂extent␈α∂to␈α∂which␈α∂our␈α∂society␈α∂currently␈α∂relies␈α∂on
␈↓ α,␈↓computers␈α∂for␈α∂decisions.␈α∂ It␈α∂also␈α∂overestimates␈α∂the␈α∂ability␈α∂of␈α∂the␈α∂faculty␈α∂of␈α∂a␈α∂particular␈α∂university
␈↓ α,␈↓to␈α_control␈α_the␈α_uses␈α_to␈α_which␈α_technology␈α_will␈α_be␈α_put,␈α_and␈α_it␈α_underestimates␈α_the␈α_di≠culty␈α_of
␈↓ α,␈↓making␈α∩knowledge␈α∩based␈α∩systems␈α∩of␈α∩practical␈α∩use.␈α∩ Weizenbaum␈α∩is␈α∩correct␈α∩in␈α∩pointing␈α∩out␈α∩that
␈↓ α,␈↓Fredkin␈α_doesn't␈α_mention␈α_the␈α_existence␈α_of␈α_genuine␈α_con∨icts␈α_in␈α_society,␈α_but␈α_only␈α_the␈α_new␈α_left
␈↓ α,␈↓sloganeering␈α∃elsewhere␈α∃in␈α∃the␈α∃book␈α∃gives␈α∃a␈α∃hint␈α∃as␈α∃to␈α∃what␈α∃he␈α∃thinks␈α∃they␈α∃are␈α∃and␈α∃how␈α∃he
␈↓ α,␈↓proposes to resolve them.

␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓ α|As␈α∪for␈α∪the␈α∪quotation␈α∪from␈α∪(McCulloch␈α∪1956),␈α∪Minsky␈α∪tells␈α∪me␈α∪"this␈α∪is␈α∪a␈α∪brave␈α∪attempt␈α∪to
␈↓ α,␈↓≡nd␈α∩a␈α∩digni≡ed␈α∩sense␈α∩of␈α∩freedom␈α∩within␈α⊃the␈α∩psychological␈α∩determinism␈α∩morass".␈α∩ Probably␈α∩this
␈↓ α,␈↓can␈α∂be␈α∂done␈α∂better␈α∂now,␈α∂but␈α∂Weizenbaum␈α∂wrongly␈α∂implies␈α∂that␈α∂McCulloch's␈α∂1956␈α∂e≥ort␈α∂is␈α∂to␈α∂his
␈↓ α,␈↓moral discredit.

␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓ α|Finally,␈α∂Weizenbaum␈α∂attributes␈α∂to␈α∂me␈α∂two␈α∂statements␈α∂-␈α∂both␈α∂from␈α∂oral␈α∂presentations␈α∂-␈α∂which
␈↓ α,␈↓I␈α⊂cannot␈α⊂verify.␈α⊂ One␈α⊂of␈α⊂them␈α⊂is␈α⊂␈↓↓"The␈α⊂only␈α⊂reason␈α⊂we␈α⊂have␈α⊂not␈α⊂yet␈α⊂succeeded␈α⊂in␈α⊂simulating␈α⊂every
␈↓ α,␈↓↓aspect␈α∂of␈α∂the␈α∂real␈α∂world␈α∂is␈α∂that␈α∂we␈α∂have␈α∂been␈α∂lacking␈α∂a␈α∂su≠ciently␈α∂powerful␈α∂logical␈α∂calculus.␈α∂ I␈α∂am
␈↓ α,␈↓↓working␈α⊃on␈α⊃that␈α⊃problem."␈↓␈α⊃This␈α⊃statement␈α⊃doesn't␈α⊃express␈α⊃my␈α⊃present␈α⊃opinion␈α⊃or␈α⊃my␈α⊃opinion␈α⊃in
␈↓ α,␈↓1973␈α∂when␈α∂I␈α∂am␈α∂alleged␈α∂to␈α∂have␈α∂expressed␈α∂it␈α∂in␈α∂a␈α∂debate,␈α∂and␈α∂no-one␈α∂has␈α∂been␈α∂able␈α∂to␈α∂≡nd␈α∂it␈α∂in
␈↓ α,␈↓the video-tape of the debate.

␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓ α|We␈α∪can't␈α∪simulate␈α∪"every␈α∪aspect␈α∪of␈α∪the␈α∪real␈α∪world",␈α∪because␈α∪the␈α∪initial␈α∪state␈α∪information␈α∪is
␈↓ α,␈↓never␈α∂available,␈α∂the␈α∂laws␈α∂of␈α∂motion␈α∂are␈α∂imperfectly␈α∂known,␈α∂and␈α∂the␈α∂calculations␈α∂for␈α∂a␈α∂simulation
␈↓ α,␈↓are␈α⊂too␈α⊂extensive.␈α⊂ Moreover,␈α⊂simulation␈α⊂wouldn't␈α⊂necessarily␈α⊂answer␈α⊂our␈α⊂questions.␈α⊂ Instead,␈α⊂we
␈↓ α,␈↓must␈α∀≡nd␈α∀out␈α∀how␈α∀to␈α∀represent␈α∀in␈α∀the␈α∀memory␈α∀of␈α∀a␈α∀computer␈α∀the␈α∀information␈α∀about␈α∀the␈α∀real
␈↓ α,␈↓world␈α∀that␈α∀is␈α∀actually␈α∀available␈α∀to␈α∀a␈α∀machine␈α∀or␈α∀organism␈α∀with␈α∀given␈α∀sensory␈α∀capability,␈α∀and
␈↓ α,␈↓also␈α∩how␈α∩to␈α∩represent␈α∩a␈α∩means␈α∩of␈α∩drawing␈α∩those␈α∩useful␈α∩conclusions␈α∩about␈α∩the␈α∩e≥ects␈α∩of␈α∩courses
␈↓ α,␈↓of␈α∩action␈α∩that␈α∩can␈α∩be␈α∩correctly␈α∩inferred␈α∩from␈α∩the␈α∩attainable␈α∩information.␈α∩ Having␈α∩a␈α∩␈↓↓su≠ciently
␈↓ α,␈↓↓powerful logical calculus␈↓ is an important part of this problem - but one of the easier parts.

␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓ α|The␈α∀second␈α∀quotation␈α∀from␈α∀me␈α∀is␈α∀the␈α∀rhetorical␈α∀question,␈α∀␈↓↓"What␈α∀do␈α∀judges␈α∀know␈α∀that␈α∀we
␈↓ α,␈↓↓cannot␈α∪tell␈α∪a␈α∪computer"␈↓.␈α∪ I'll␈α∪stand␈α∪on␈α∪that␈α∪if␈α∪we␈α∪make␈α∪it␈α∪"eventually␈α∪tell"␈α∪and␈α∪especially␈α∪if␈α∪we
␈↓ α,␈↓require that it be something that one human can reliably teach another.

␈↓ α,␈↓α␈↓ εCA SUMMARY OF POLEMICAL SINS

␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓ α|The␈α∩speculative␈α∩sections␈α∩of␈α∩the␈α∩book␈α∩contain␈α∩numerous␈α∩dubious␈α∩little␈α∩theories,␈α∩such␈α∩as␈α∩this
␈↓ α,␈↓one␈α↔about␈α↔the␈α↔dehumanizing␈α↔e≥ect␈α↔of␈α↔of␈α↔the␈α↔invention␈α↔of␈α↔the␈α↔clock:␈α↔␈↓↓"The␈α↔clock␈α↔had␈α↔created
␈↓ α,␈↓↓literally␈α∪a␈α∪new␈α∪reality;␈α∪and␈α∪that␈α∪is␈α∪what␈α∪I␈α∪meant␈α∪when␈α∪I␈α∪said␈α∪earlier␈α∪that␈α∪the␈α∪trick␈α∪man␈α∪turned
␈↓ α,␈↓↓that␈α∞prepared␈α∂the␈α∂scene␈α∂for␈α∂the␈α∂rise␈α∂of␈α∞modern␈α∂science␈α∂was␈α∂nothing␈α∂less␈α∂than␈α∂the␈α∂transformation␈α∂of
␈↓ α,␈↓↓nature␈α⊃and␈α⊃of␈α⊃his␈α⊃perception␈α⊃of␈α⊃reality.␈α⊃ It␈α⊃is␈α⊃important␈α⊃to␈α⊃realize␈α⊃that␈α⊃this␈α⊃newly␈α⊃created␈α⊃reality
␈↓ α,␈↓↓was␈α∃and␈α∃remains␈α∃an␈α∃impoverished␈α∃version␈α∃of␈α∃the␈α∃older␈α∃one,␈α∃for␈α∃it␈α∃rests␈α∃on␈α∃a␈α∃rejection␈α∃of␈α∃those
␈↓ α,␈↓↓direct␈α∂experiences␈α∂that␈α∂formed␈α∂the␈α∂basis␈α∂for,␈α∂and␈α∂indeed␈α∂constituted␈α∂the␈α∂old␈α∂reality.␈α∂ The␈α∂feeling␈α∂of
␈↓ α,␈↓↓hunger␈α→was␈α→rejected␈α→as␈α→a␈α→stimulus␈α→for␈α→eating;␈α→instead␈α→one␈α→ate␈α→when␈α→an␈α→abstract␈α→model␈α→had
␈↓ α,␈↓↓achieved␈α⊂a␈α⊂certain␈α⊂state,␈α⊂i.e.␈α⊂when␈α⊂the␈α⊂hand␈α⊂of␈α⊂a␈α⊂clock␈α⊂pointed␈α⊂to␈α⊂certain␈α⊂marks␈α⊂on␈α⊂the␈α⊂clock's␈α⊂face
␈↓ α,␈↓↓(the␈α⊗anthropomorphism␈α⊗here␈α⊗is␈α⊗highly␈α⊗signi≡cant␈α⊗too),␈α⊗and␈α⊗similarly␈α⊗for␈α⊗signals␈α⊗for␈α⊗sleep␈α⊗and
␈↓ α,␈↓↓rising, and so on."␈↓

␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓ α|This␈α⊃idealization␈α⊃of␈α⊃primitive␈α⊃life␈α⊃is␈α⊃simply␈α⊃thoughtless.␈α⊃ Like␈α⊃modern␈α⊃man,␈α⊃primitive␈α⊃man
␈↓ α,␈↓ate␈α_when␈α_the␈α_food␈α_was␈α_ready,␈α_and␈α_primitive␈α_man␈α_probably␈α_had␈α_to␈α_start␈α_preparing␈α_it␈α_even
␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓ ⊂010


␈↓ α,␈↓further␈α⊂in␈α⊂advance.␈α⊂ Like␈α⊂modern␈α⊂man,␈α⊂primitive␈α⊂man␈α⊂lived␈α⊂in␈α⊂families␈α⊂whose␈α⊂members␈α⊂are␈α⊂no
␈↓ α,␈↓more likely to become hungry all at once than are the members of a present family.

␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓ α|I␈α⊃get␈α⊃the␈α⊃feeling␈α⊃that␈α⊃in␈α⊃toppling␈α⊃this␈α⊃microtheory␈α⊃I␈α⊃am␈α⊃not␈α⊃playing␈α⊃the␈α⊃game;␈α⊃the␈α⊃theory␈α⊃is
␈↓ α,␈↓intended␈α⊗only␈α⊗to␈α⊗provide␈α⊗an␈α⊗atmosphere,␈α⊗and␈α⊗like␈α⊗the␈α⊗reader␈α⊗of␈α⊗a␈α⊗novel,␈α⊗I␈α⊗am␈α⊗supposed␈α⊗to
␈↓ α,␈↓suspend␈α∩disbelief.␈α∩ But␈α∩the␈α∩contention␈α∩that␈α∩science␈α∩has␈α∩driven␈α∩us␈α∩from␈α∩a␈α∩psychological␈α∩Garden
␈↓ α,␈↓of Eden depends heavily on such word pictures.

␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓ α|By␈α∪the␈α∪way,␈α∪I␈α∪recall␈α∪from␈α∪my␈α∪last␈α∪sabbatical␈α∪at␈α∪M.I.T.␈α∪that␈α∪the␈α∪␈↓↓feeling␈α∪of␈α∪hunger␈↓␈α∪is␈α∪more
␈↓ α,␈↓often␈α⊂the␈α⊂␈↓↓direct␈α⊂social␈α⊂stimulus␈α⊂for␈α⊂eating␈↓␈α⊂for␈α⊂the␈α⊂"hackers"␈α⊂deplored␈α⊂in␈α⊂Chapter␈α⊂4␈α⊂than␈α⊂it␈α⊂could
␈↓ α,␈↓have␈α∩been␈α∩for␈α∩primitive␈α∩man.␈α∩ Often␈α∩on␈α∩a␈α∩crisp␈α∩New␈α∩England␈α∩night,␈α∩even␈α∩as␈α∩the␈α∩clock␈α∩strikes
␈↓ α,␈↓three,␈α~I␈α~hear␈α~them␈α~call␈α~to␈α~one␈α~another,␈α~messages␈α~∨ash␈α~on␈α~the␈α~screens,␈α~a␈α~∨ock␈α~of␈α~hackers
␈↓ α,␈↓magically gathers, and the whole picturesque assembly rushes chattering o≥ to Chinatown.

␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓ α|I ≡nd the book substandard as a piece of polemical writing in the following respects:

␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓ α|1.␈α⊂The␈α⊂author␈α⊂has␈α⊂failed␈α⊂to␈α⊂work␈α⊂out␈α⊂his␈α⊂own␈α⊂positions␈α⊂on␈α⊂the␈α⊂issues␈α⊂he␈α⊂discusses.␈α⊂ Making
␈↓ α,␈↓an␈α⊃extreme␈α⊃statement␈α⊃in␈α⊃one␈α⊃place␈α⊃and␈α⊃a␈α⊃contradictory␈α⊃statement␈α⊃in␈α⊃another␈α⊃is␈α⊃no␈α⊃substitute␈α⊃for
␈↓ α,␈↓trying␈α∂to␈α∂take␈α∂all␈α∂the␈α∂factors␈α∂into␈α∂account␈α∂and␈α∂reach␈α∂a␈α∂considered␈α∂position.␈α∂ Unsuspicious␈α∂readers
␈↓ α,␈↓can␈α∂come␈α∂away␈α∂with␈α∂a␈α∂great␈α∂variety␈α∂of␈α∂views,␈α∂and␈α∂the␈α∂book␈α∂can␈α∂be␈α∂used␈α∂to␈α∂support␈α∂contradictory
␈↓ α,␈↓positions.

␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓ α|2.␈α↔The␈α↔computer␈α↔linguists␈α↔-␈α↔Winograd,␈α↔Schank,␈α↔et.␈α↔al.␈α↔ -␈α↔are␈α↔denigrated␈α↔as␈α↔hackers␈α↔and
␈↓ α,␈↓compulsive computer programmers by innuendo.

␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓ α|3.␈α∀One␈α∀would␈α∀like␈α∀to␈α∀know␈α∀more␈α∀precisely␈α∀what␈α∀biological␈α∀and␈α∀psychological␈α∀experiments
␈↓ α,␈↓and␈α↔computer␈α↔applications␈α↔he␈α↔≡nds␈α↔acceptable.␈α↔ Reviewers␈α↔have␈α↔already␈α↔drawn␈α↔a␈α↔variety␈α↔of
␈↓ α,␈↓conclusions on this point.

␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓ α|4.␈α∩The␈α∩terms␈α∩"authentic",␈α∩"obscene",␈α∩and␈α∩"dehumanization␈α∩are␈α∩used␈α∩as␈α∩clubs.␈α∩ This␈α∩is␈α∩what
␈↓ α,␈↓mathematicians call "proof by intimidation".

␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓ α|5.␈α∀The␈α∀book␈α∀encourages␈α∀a␈α∀snobbery␈α∀that␈α∀has␈α∀no␈α∀need␈α∀to␈α∀argue␈α∀for␈α∀its␈α∀point␈α∀of␈α∀view␈α∀but
␈↓ α,␈↓merely␈α∀utters␈α∀code␈α∀words,␈α∀on␈α∀hearing␈α∀which␈α∀the␈α∀audience␈α∀is␈α∀supposed␈α∀applaud␈α∀or␈α∀hiss␈α∀as␈α∀the
␈↓ α,␈↓case may be.  The ␈↓↓New Scientist␈↓ reviewer certainly salivates in most of the intended places.

␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓ α|6.␈α↔Finally,␈α↔when␈α↔moralizing␈α↔is␈α↔both␈α↔vehement␈α↔and␈α↔vague,␈α↔it␈α↔invites␈α↔authoritarian␈α↔abuse
␈↓ α,␈↓either␈α⊂by␈α⊂existing␈α⊂authority␈α⊂or␈α⊂by␈α⊂new␈α⊂political␈α⊂movements.␈α⊂ Imagine,␈α⊂if␈α⊂you␈α⊂can,␈α⊂that␈α⊂this␈α⊂book
␈↓ α,␈↓were␈α∃the␈α∃bible␈α∃of␈α∃some␈α∃bureaucracy,␈α∃e.g.␈α∃ an␈α∃O≠ce␈α∃of␈α∃Technology␈α∃Assessment,␈α∃that␈α∃acquired
␈↓ α,␈↓power␈α↔over␈α↔the␈α↔computing␈α↔or␈α↔scienti≡c␈α↔activities␈α↔of␈α↔a␈α↔university,␈α↔state,␈α↔or␈α↔country.␈α↔ Suppose
␈↓ α,␈↓Weizenbaum's␈α∪slogans␈α∪were␈α∪combined␈α∪with␈α∪␈↓↓the␈α∪bureaucratic␈α∪ethic␈↓␈α∪that␈α∪holds␈α∪that␈α∪any␈α∪problem
␈↓ α,␈↓can␈α⊗be␈α⊗solved␈α⊗by␈α⊗a␈α∃law␈α⊗forbidding␈α⊗something␈α⊗and␈α⊗a␈α⊗bureaucracy␈α⊗of␈α⊗eager␈α⊗young␈α⊗lawyers␈α⊗to
␈↓ α,␈↓enforce␈α∂it.␈α∂ Postulate␈α∂further␈α∂a␈α∂vague␈α∂␈↓↓Humane␈α∂Research␈α∂Act␈↓␈α∂and␈α∂a␈α∂"public␈α∂interest"␈α∂organization
␈↓ α,␈↓with␈α∪more␈α∪eager␈α∪young␈α∪lawyers␈α∪suing␈α∪to␈α∪get␈α∪judges␈α∪to␈α∪legislate␈α∪new␈α∪interpretations␈α∪of␈α∪the␈α∪Act.
␈↓ α,␈↓One␈α≠can␈α≠see␈α≠a␈α≠laboratory␈α≠needing␈α≠more␈α≠lawyers␈α≠than␈α≠scientists␈α≠and␈α≠a␈α≠Humane␈α≠Research
␈↓ α,␈↓Administrator capable of forbidding or requiring almost anything.

␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓ α|I␈α⊂see␈α⊂no␈α⊂evidence␈α⊂that␈α⊂Weizenbaum␈α⊂forsees␈α⊂his␈α⊂work␈α⊂being␈α⊂used␈α⊂in␈α⊂this␈α⊂way;␈α⊂he␈α⊂doesn't␈α⊂use
␈↓ α,␈↓the␈α phrase␈α ␈↓↓laissez␈α innover␈↓␈α which␈α is␈α the␈α would-be␈α science␈α bureaucrat's␈α analogue␈α of␈α the
␈↓ α,␈↓economist's␈α∂␈↓↓laissez␈α∂faire␈↓,␈α∂and␈α∂he␈α∂never␈α∂uses␈α∂the␈α∂inde≡nite␈α∂phrase␈α∂"it␈α∂should␈α∂be␈α∂decided"␈α∂which␈α∂is
␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓ ⊂011


␈↓ α,␈↓a␈α⊗common␈α⊗expression␈α⊗of␈α⊗the␈α⊗bureaucratic␈α⊗ethic.␈α⊗ However,␈α⊗he␈α⊗has␈α⊗certainly␈α⊗given␈α⊗his␈α⊗fellow
␈↓ α,␈↓computer scientists at least some reason to worry about potential tyranny.

␈↓ α,␈↓Let␈α∃me␈α∃conclude␈α∃this␈α∃section␈α∃with␈α∃a␈α∃quotation␈α∃from␈α∃Andrew␈α∃D.␈α∃White,␈α∃the␈α∃≡rst␈α∃president␈α∃of
␈↓ α,␈↓Cornell␈α∂University,␈α∂that␈α∂seems␈α∂applicable␈α∂to␈α∂the␈α∂present␈α∂situation␈α∂-␈α∂not␈α∂only␈α∂in␈α∂computer␈α∂science,
␈↓ α,␈↓but␈α⊂also␈α⊂in␈α⊂biology.␈α⊂-␈α⊂"␈↓↓In␈α⊂all␈α⊂modern␈α⊂history,␈α⊂interference␈α⊂with␈α⊂science␈α⊂in␈α⊂the␈α⊂supposed␈α⊂interest␈α⊂of
␈↓ α,␈↓↓religion,␈α∩no␈α∩matter␈α∩how␈α∩conscientious␈α∩such␈α∩interference␈α∩may␈α∩have␈α∩been,␈α∩has␈α∩resulted␈α∩in␈α∩the␈α∩direst
␈↓ α,␈↓↓evils␈α∃both␈α∃to␈α∃religion␈α∃and␈α∃to␈α∃science,␈α∃and␈α∃invariably;␈α∃and,␈α∃on␈α∃the␈α∃other␈α∃hand,␈α∃all␈α∃untrammelled
␈↓ α,␈↓↓scienti≡c␈α∂investigation,␈α∂no␈α∂matter␈α∂how␈α∂dangerous␈α∂to␈α∂religion␈α∂some␈α∂of␈α∂its␈α∂stages␈α∂my␈α∂have␈α∂seemed␈α∂for
␈↓ α,␈↓↓the␈α→time␈α→to␈α→be,␈α→has␈α→invariably␈α→resulted␈α→in␈α→the␈α→highest␈α→good␈α→both␈α→of␈α→religion␈α→and␈α→of␈α→science"␈↓.
␈↓ α,␈↓Substitute␈α⊃␈↓↓morality␈↓␈α⊃for␈α⊃␈↓↓religion␈↓␈α⊃and␈α⊃the␈α⊃parallel␈α⊃is␈α⊃clear.␈α⊃ Frankly,␈α⊃the␈α⊃feebleness␈α⊃of␈α⊃the␈α⊃reaction
␈↓ α,␈↓to attacks on scienti≡c freedom worries me more than the strength of the attacks.

␈↓ α,␈↓α␈↓ ∧+WHAT WORRIES  ABOUT COMPUTERS ARE WARRANTED?

␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓ α|Grumbling␈α∩about␈α∩Weizenbaum's␈α∩mistakes␈α∩and␈α∩moralizing␈α∩is␈α∩not␈α∩enough.␈α∩ Genuine␈α∩worries
␈↓ α,␈↓prompted␈α∀the␈α∀book,␈α∀and␈α∀many␈α∀people␈α∀share␈α∀them.␈α∀ Here␈α∀are␈α∀the␈α∀genuine␈α∀concerns␈α∀that␈α∀I␈α∀can
␈↓ α,␈↓identify␈α∩and␈α∩the␈α∩opinions␈α∩of␈α∩one␈α∩computer␈α∩scientist␈α∩about␈α∩their␈α∩resolution:␈α∩What␈α∩is␈α∩the␈α∩danger
␈↓ α,␈↓that␈α∞the␈α∂computer␈α∂will␈α∂lead␈α∂to␈α∂a␈α∂false␈α∞model␈α∂of␈α∂man?␈α∂ What␈α∂is␈α∂the␈α∂danger␈α∂that␈α∂computers␈α∂will␈α∂be
␈↓ α,␈↓misused?␈α≠ Can␈α≠human-level␈α≠arti≡cial␈α≠intelligence␈α≠be␈α≠achieved?␈α≠ What,␈α≠if␈α≠any,␈α≠motivational
␈↓ α,␈↓characteristics␈α⊂will␈α⊂it␈α⊂have?␈α⊂ Would␈α⊂the␈α⊂achievement␈α⊂of␈α⊂arti≡cial␈α⊂intelligence␈α⊂be␈α⊂good␈α⊂or␈α⊂bad␈α⊂for
␈↓ α,␈↓humanity?


␈↓ α,␈↓α␈↓ α|1. Does the computer model lead to a false model of man.

␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓ α|Historically,␈α∪the␈α∪mechanistic␈α∪model␈α∪of␈α∪the␈α∪life␈α∪and␈α∪the␈α∪world␈α∪followed␈α∪animistic␈α∪models␈α∪in
␈↓ α,␈↓accordance␈α with␈α which,␈α priests␈α and␈α medicine␈α men␈α tried␈α to␈α correct␈α malfunctions␈α of␈α the
␈↓ α,␈↓environment␈α⊗and␈α⊗man␈α⊗by␈α⊗inducing␈α⊗spirits␈α⊗to␈α⊗behave␈α⊗better.␈α⊗ Replacing␈α⊗them␈α⊗by␈α⊗mechanistic
␈↓ α,␈↓models␈α∀replaced␈α∀shamanism␈α∀by␈α∀medicine.␈α∀ Roszak␈α∀explicitly␈α∀would␈α∀like␈α∀to␈α∀bring␈α∀these␈α∀models
␈↓ α,␈↓back,␈α∪because␈α∪he␈α∪≡nds␈α∪them␈α∪more␈α∪"human",␈α∪but␈α∪he␈α∪ignores␈α∪the␈α∪sad␈α∪fact␈α∪that␈α∪they␈α∪don't␈α∪work,
␈↓ α,␈↓because␈α_the␈α_world␈α_isn't␈α_constructed␈α_that␈α_way.␈α_ The␈α_pre-computer␈α_mechanistic␈α_models␈α_of␈α_the
␈↓ α,␈↓mind␈α∃were,␈α∃in␈α∃my␈α∃opinion,␈α∃unsuccessful,but␈α∃I␈α∃think␈α∃the␈α∃psychologists␈α∃pursuing␈α∃computational
␈↓ α,␈↓models of mental processes may eventually develop a really bene≡cial psychiatry.

␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓ α|Philosophical␈α⊗and␈α⊗moral␈α⊗thinking␈α⊗hasn't␈α⊗yet␈α⊗found␈α⊗a␈α⊗model␈α⊗of␈α⊗man␈α⊗that␈α⊗relates␈α⊗human
␈↓ α,␈↓beliefs␈α~and␈α~purposes␈α~to␈α~the␈α~physical␈α~world␈α~in␈α~a␈α~plausible␈α~way.␈α~ Some␈α~of␈α~the␈α~unsuccessful
␈↓ α,␈↓attempts␈α~have␈α~been␈α~more␈α~mechanistic␈α~than␈α~others.␈α~ Both␈α~mechanistic␈α~and␈α~non-mechanistic
␈↓ α,␈↓models␈α∀have␈α∀led␈α∀to␈α∀great␈α∀harm␈α∀when␈α∀made␈α∀the␈α∀basis␈α∀of␈α∀political␈α∀ideology,␈α∀because␈α∀they␈α∀have
␈↓ α,␈↓allowed␈α∪tortuous␈α∪reasoning␈α∪to␈α∪justify␈α∪actions␈α∪that␈α∪simple␈α∪human␈α∪intuition␈α∪regards␈α∪as␈α∪immoral.
␈↓ α,␈↓In␈α↔my␈α↔opinion,␈α↔the␈α↔relation␈α↔between␈α↔beliefs,␈α↔purposes␈α↔and␈α↔wants␈α↔to␈α↔the␈α↔physical␈α↔world␈α↔is␈α↔a
␈↓ α,␈↓complicated␈α_but␈α_ultimately␈α_solvable␈α_problem.␈α_ Computer␈α_models␈α_can␈α_help␈α_solve␈α_it,␈α_and␈α_can
␈↓ α,␈↓provide␈α∪criteria␈α∪that␈α∪will␈α∪enable␈α∪us␈α∪to␈α∪reject␈α∪false␈α∪solutions.␈α∪ The␈α∪latter␈α∪is␈α∪more␈α∪important␈α∪for
␈↓ α,␈↓now,␈α⊗and␈α⊗computer␈α⊗models␈α⊗are␈α⊗already␈α⊗hastening␈α⊗the␈α⊗decay␈α⊗of␈α⊗dialectical␈α⊗materialism␈α⊗in␈α⊗the
␈↓ α,␈↓Soviet Union.
␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓ ⊂012


␈↓ α,␈↓α␈↓ α|2. What is the danger that computers will be misused?

␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓ α|Up␈α∩to␈α∩now,␈α∩computers␈α∩have␈α∩been␈α∩just␈α⊃another␈α∩labor-saving␈α∩technology.␈α∩ I␈α∩don't␈α∩agree␈α∩with
␈↓ α,␈↓Weizenbaum's␈α∀acceptance␈α∀of␈α∀the␈α∀claim␈α∀that␈α∀our␈α∀society␈α∀would␈α∀have␈α∀been␈α∀inundated␈α∀by␈α∀paper
␈↓ α,␈↓work␈α⊂without␈α⊂computers.␈α⊂ Without␈α⊂computers,␈α⊂people␈α⊂would␈α⊂work␈α⊂a␈α⊂little␈α⊂harder␈α⊂and␈α⊂get␈α⊂a␈α⊂little
␈↓ α,␈↓less␈α∃for␈α∃their␈α∃work.␈α∃ However,␈α∃when␈α∃home␈α∃terminals␈α∃become␈α∃available,␈α∃social␈α∃changes␈α∃of␈α∃the
␈↓ α,␈↓magnitude␈α⊗of␈α⊗those␈α⊗produced␈α⊗by␈α∃the␈α⊗telephone␈α⊗and␈α⊗automobile␈α⊗will␈α⊗occur.␈α⊗ I␈α⊗have␈α⊗discussed
␈↓ α,␈↓them␈α≤elsewhere,␈α≤and␈α≤I␈α≤think␈α≤they␈α≤will␈α≤be␈α≤good␈α≤-␈α≤as␈α≤were␈α≤the␈α≤changes␈α≤produced␈α≤by␈α≤the
␈↓ α,␈↓automobile␈α~and␈α~the␈α~telephone.␈α→ Tyranny␈α~comes␈α~from␈α~control␈α~of␈α~the␈α~police␈α~coupled␈α~with␈α~a
␈↓ α,␈↓tyrannical␈α↔ideology;␈α↔data␈α↔banks␈α↔will␈α↔be␈α↔a␈α↔minor␈α↔convenience.␈α↔ No␈α↔dictatorship␈α↔yet␈α↔has␈α↔been
␈↓ α,␈↓overthrown for lack of a data bank.

␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓ α|One's␈α∃estimate␈α∃of␈α∃whether␈α∃technology␈α∃will␈α∃work␈α∃out␈α∃well␈α∃in␈α∃the␈α∃future␈α∃is␈α∃correlated␈α∃with
␈↓ α,␈↓one's␈α⊂view␈α⊂of␈α⊂how␈α⊂it␈α⊂worked␈α⊂out␈α⊂in␈α⊂the␈α⊂past.␈α⊂ I␈α⊂think␈α⊂it␈α⊂has␈α⊂worked␈α⊂out␈α⊂well␈α⊂-␈α⊂e.g.␈α⊂cars␈α⊂were␈α⊂not
␈↓ α,␈↓a␈α≠mistake␈α≠-␈α≠and␈α≠am␈α≠optimistic␈α≠about␈α≠the␈α≠future.␈α≠ I␈α≠feel␈α≠that␈α≠much␈α≠current␈α≠ideology␈α≠is␈α≠a
␈↓ α,␈↓combination␈α∪of␈α∪older␈α∪anti-scienti≡c␈α∪and␈α∪anti-technological␈α∪views␈α∪with␈α∪new␈α∪developments␈α∪in␈α∪the
␈↓ α,␈↓political technology of instigating and manipulating fears and guilt feelings.


␈↓ α,␈↓α␈↓ α|3. What motivations will arti≡cial intelligence have?

␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓ α|It␈α⊂will␈α⊂have␈α⊂what␈α⊂motivations␈α⊂we␈α⊂choose␈α⊂to␈α⊂give␈α⊂it.␈α⊂ Those␈α⊂who␈α⊂≡nally␈α⊂create␈α⊂it␈α⊂should␈α⊂start
␈↓ α,␈↓by␈α⊃motivating␈α⊃it␈α⊃only␈α⊃to␈α⊃answer␈α⊃questions␈α⊃and␈α⊃should␈α⊃have␈α⊃the␈α⊃sense␈α⊃to␈α⊃ask␈α⊃for␈α⊃full␈α⊃pictures␈α⊃of
␈↓ α,␈↓the␈α∩consequences␈α∩of␈α∩alternate␈α∩actions␈α∩rather␈α∩than␈α∩simply␈α∩how␈α∩to␈α∩achieve␈α∩a␈α∩≡xed␈α∩goal,␈α∩ignoring
␈↓ α,␈↓possible␈α⊃side-e≥ects.␈α⊃ Giving␈α⊃it␈α⊃human␈α⊃motivational␈α⊃structure␈α⊃with␈α⊃its␈α⊃shifting␈α⊃goals␈α⊃sensitive␈α⊃to
␈↓ α,␈↓physical␈α≤state␈α≤would␈α≤require␈α≤a␈α≤deliberate␈α≤e≥ort␈α≤beyond␈α≤that␈α≤required␈α≤to␈α≤make␈α≤it␈α≤behave
␈↓ α,␈↓intelligently.


␈↓ α,␈↓α␈↓ α|4. Will arti≡cial intelligence be good or bad?

␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓ α|Here␈α⊗we␈α⊗are␈α⊗talking␈α⊗about␈α⊗machines␈α⊗with␈α⊗the␈α⊗same␈α⊗range␈α⊗of␈α⊗intellectual␈α⊗abilities␈α⊗as␈α⊗are
␈↓ α,␈↓posessed␈α⊗by␈α⊗humans.␈α⊗ However,␈α⊗the␈α⊗science␈α⊗≡ction␈α⊗vision␈α⊗of␈α⊗robots␈α⊗with␈α⊗almost␈α⊗precisely␈α⊗the
␈↓ α,␈↓ability␈α⊂of␈α⊂a␈α⊂human␈α⊂is␈α⊂quite␈α⊂unlikely,␈α⊂because␈α⊂the␈α⊂next␈α⊂generation␈α⊂of␈α⊂computers␈α⊂or␈α⊂even␈α⊂hooking
␈↓ α,␈↓computers␈α↔together␈α↔would␈α↔produce␈α↔an␈α↔intelligence␈α↔that␈α↔might␈α↔be␈α↔qualitatively␈α↔like␈α↔that␈α↔of␈α↔a
␈↓ α,␈↓human,␈α∂but␈α∂thousands␈α∂of␈α∂times␈α∂faster.␈α∂ What␈α∂would␈α∂it␈α∂be␈α∂like␈α∂to␈α∂be␈α∂able␈α∂to␈α∂put␈α∂a␈α∂hundred␈α∂years
␈↓ α,␈↓thought␈α⊂into␈α⊂every␈α⊂decision?␈α⊂ I␈α⊂think␈α⊂it␈α⊂is␈α⊂impossible␈α⊂to␈α⊂say␈α⊂whether␈α⊂qualitatively␈α⊂better␈α⊂answers
␈↓ α,␈↓would be obtained; we will have to try it and see.

␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓ α|The␈α→achievement␈α→of␈α→above-human-level␈α→arti≡cial␈α→intelligence␈α→will␈α→open␈α→to␈α→humanity␈α→an
␈↓ α,␈↓incredible␈α∩variety␈α∩of␈α∩options.␈α∩ We␈α∩cannot␈α∩now␈α∩fully␈α∩envisage␈α∩what␈α∩these␈α∩options␈α∩will␈α∩be,␈α∩but␈α∩it
␈↓ α,␈↓seems␈α⊃apparent␈α⊃that␈α⊃one␈α⊃of␈α⊃the␈α⊃≡rst␈α⊃uses␈α⊃of␈α⊃high-level␈α⊃arti≡cial␈α⊃intelligence␈α⊃will␈α⊃be␈α⊃to␈α⊃determine
␈↓ α,␈↓the␈α∩consequences␈α∩of␈α∩alternate␈α∩policies␈α∩governing␈α∩its␈α∩use.␈α∩ I␈α∩think␈α∩the␈α∩most␈α∩likely␈α∩variant␈α∩is␈α∩that
␈↓ α,␈↓man␈α≥will␈α≥use␈α≥arti≡cial␈α≥intelligence␈α≥to␈α≥transform␈α≥himself,␈α≥but␈α≥once␈α≥its␈α≥properties␈α≥and␈α≥the
␈↓ α,␈↓conequences␈α∩of␈α∩its␈α∩use␈α∩are␈α∩known,␈α∩we␈α∩may␈α∩decide␈α∩not␈α∩to␈α∩use␈α∩it.␈α∩ Science␈α∩would␈α∩then␈α∩be␈α∩a␈α∩sport
␈↓ α,␈↓like␈α∪mountain␈α∪climbing;␈α∪the␈α∪point␈α∪would␈α∪be␈α∪to␈α∪discover␈α∪the␈α∪facts␈α∪about␈α∪the␈α∪world␈α∪using␈α∪some
␈↓ α,␈↓stylized␈α⊂limited␈α⊂means.␈α⊂ I␈α⊂wouldn't␈α⊂like␈α⊂that,␈α⊂but␈α⊂once␈α⊂man␈α⊂is␈α⊂confronted␈α⊂by␈α⊂the␈α⊂actuality␈α⊂of␈α⊂full
␈↓ α,␈↓AI,␈α∨they␈α∨may␈α∨≡nd␈α∨our␈α∨opinion␈α∨as␈α∨relevant␈α∨to␈α∨them␈α∨as␈α∨we␈α∨would␈α∨≡nd␈α∨the␈α∨opinion␈α∨of
␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓↓Pithecanthropus␈↓ about whether subsequent evolution took the right course.
␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓ ⊂013


␈↓ α,␈↓α␈↓ α|5. What shouldn't computers be programmed to do.

␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓ α|Obviously␈α"one␈α"shouldn't␈α"program␈α"computers␈α"to␈α"do␈α"things␈α"that␈α"shouldn't␈α"be␈α"done.
␈↓ α,␈↓Moreover,␈α⊃we␈α⊃shouldn't␈α⊃use␈α⊃programs␈α⊃to␈α⊃mislead␈α⊃ourselves␈α⊃or␈α⊃other␈α⊃people.␈α⊃ Apart␈α⊃from␈α⊃that,␈α⊃I
␈↓ α,␈↓≡nd␈α⊂none␈α⊂of␈α⊂Weizenbaum's␈α⊂examples␈α⊂convincing.␈α⊂ However,␈α⊂I␈α⊂doubt␈α⊂the␈α⊂advisability␈α⊂of␈α⊂making
␈↓ α,␈↓robots␈α~with␈α~human-like␈α~motivational␈α~and␈α~emotional␈α~structures␈α~that␈α~might␈α~have␈α~rights␈α~and
␈↓ α,␈↓duties␈α⊃independently␈α⊃of␈α⊃humans.␈α⊃ Moreover,␈α⊃I␈α⊃think␈α⊃it␈α⊃might␈α⊃be␈α⊃dangerous␈α⊃to␈α⊃make␈α⊃a␈α⊃machine
␈↓ α,␈↓that␈α∃evolved␈α∃intelligence␈α∃by␈α∃responding␈α∃to␈α∃a␈α∃program␈α∃of␈α∃rewards␈α∃and␈α∃punishments␈α∃unless␈α∃its
␈↓ α,␈↓trainers understand the intellectual and motivational structure being evolved.

␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓ α|All␈α⊂these␈α⊂questions␈α⊂merit␈α⊂and␈α⊂have␈α⊂received␈α⊂more␈α⊂extensive␈α⊂discussion,␈α⊂but␈α⊂I␈α⊂think␈α⊂the␈α⊂only
␈↓ α,␈↓rational␈α⊃policy␈α⊃now␈α⊃is␈α⊃to␈α⊃expect␈α⊃the␈α⊃people␈α⊃confronted␈α⊃by␈α⊃the␈α⊃problem␈α⊃to␈α⊃understand␈α⊃their␈α⊃best
␈↓ α,␈↓interests␈α⊂better␈α⊂than␈α⊂we␈α⊂now␈α⊂can.␈α⊂ Even␈α⊂if␈α⊂full␈α⊂AI␈α⊂were␈α⊂to␈α⊂arrive␈α⊂next␈α⊂year,␈α⊂this␈α⊂would␈α⊂be␈α⊂right.
␈↓ α,␈↓Correct␈α≥decisions␈α≥will␈α≥require␈α≥an␈α≥intense␈α≥e≥ort␈α≥that␈α≥cannot␈α≥be␈α≥mobilized␈α≥to␈α≥consider␈α≥an
␈↓ α,␈↓eventuality␈α∃that␈α∃is␈α∃still␈α∃remote.␈α∃ Imagine␈α∃asking␈α∃the␈α∃presidential␈α∃candidates␈α∃to␈α∃debate␈α∃on␈α∃TV
␈↓ α,␈↓what each of them would do about each of the forms that full AI might take.


␈↓ α,␈↓α␈↓ α|References:

␈↓ α,␈↓␈↓ α|McCulloch,W.S.(1956)␈α∩Toward␈α∩some␈α∩circuitry␈α∩of␈α∩ethical␈α∩robots␈α∩or␈α∩an␈α∩observational␈α∩science
␈↓ α,␈↓of␈α-the␈α-genesis␈α-of␈α-social␈α-evaluation␈α-in␈α-the␈α-mind-like␈α-behavior␈α-of␈α-artifacts.␈α-␈↓↓Acta
␈↓ α,␈↓↓Biotheoretica␈↓,␈↓αXI␈↓↓,parts 3/4, 147-156

␈↓ α,␈↓↓␈↓ α|␈↓εThis␈α_review␈α_is␈α_filed␈α_as␈α↔WEIZEN.REV[PUB,JMC]␈α_at␈α_SU-AI␈α_on␈α_the␈α_ARPA␈α_net.␈α_ Any
␈↓ α,␈↓εcomments␈α∩sent␈α∩to␈α∩JMC@SU-AI␈α∩will␈α∩be␈α∩stored␈α∩in␈α∩the␈α∩directory␈α∩PUB,JMC␈α∩also␈α∩known␈α∩as
␈↓ α,␈↓ε␈↓↓McCarthy's␈α&Electric␈α&Magazine␈↓ε.␈α& The␈α&comment␈α&files␈α&will␈α&be␈α&designated␈α&WEIZEN.1,
␈↓ α,␈↓εWEIZEN.2, etc.␈↓

␈↓ α,␈↓John McCarthy
␈↓ α,␈↓Artificial Intelligence Laboratory
␈↓ α,␈↓Stanford, California 94305

␈↓ α,␈↓February 15, 1988
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